contemporary urban environments Flashcards
(54 cards)
1
Q
what is urbanisation?
A
- the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities
- the 2 main causes of urbanisation are natural growth and rural- urban migration
2
Q
where is most contemporary urbanisation happening and how has it changed?
A
- 50% of the world is urbanised, scale and speed is faster than ever
- most contemporary urbanisation is happing is places such as Africa and Asia in large towns and small cities
- urban population has only increased slightly since 1945 due to the industrial revolution where many people moved to cities in search of work in mills and factories
3
Q
what is meant by urbanism?
A
- a certain culture and way of living in urban areas (lifestyle)
4
Q
how do we know urbanisation is happening and why is the data problematic?
A
- we known urbanisation is happening due to census data evidence
- however, census data cannot always be to scale as different countries have different definitions of urbanisation
- data can be taken at different times and years so quality is undermined and can be faulty
5
Q
what 3 points suggest that urbanisation and urbanism is an important geographic topic?
A
1) today, the most urbanised regions include Northern America (with 82% of its population living in urban areas in 2018), Latin America and the Caribbean (81%), Europe (74%) and Oceania (68%)
2) as the world continues to urbanise, sustainable development depends increasingly on the successful management of urban growth, especially in low-income and lower-middle-income countries where the most rapid urbanisation is expected between now and 2050
3) close to half of the world’s urban dwellers reside in settlements with fewer than 500,000 inhabitants
6
Q
what is a megacity and a meta city?
A
megacity- this is an urban area with over 10 million people
meta city- this is an urban area with more than 20 million people
7
Q
how have megacities and meta cities changed over the years?
A
-in 1990 there were 10 megacities; in 2020 there were 30; and by 2030 the UN predicts there will be 43 megacities housing over 13 per cent of the global population
- between 2018 and 2030, the population of Delhi is projected to increase by more than 10 million, while Tokyo is projected to decline by almost 900,000, such settlements can be defined as meta cities
8
Q
what is meant by urban growth?
A
- this is the physical expansion of cities both economically and demographically
9
Q
what are the two main causes of urban growth?
A
1) natural population growth
2) rural-urban migration
10
Q
how is natural population growth impacted urban growth and how is it changing?
A
- urban areas have relatively young age profiles ranging from 15-40 who are migrating for higher paid jobs, better educational opportunities and greater social and cultural diversity
- between 2001 and 2011 the population of large city centres in England and Wales more than doubled with residents aged 22-29 who are in their fertile years and people have children, so rates of natural increase are higher in cities than surrounding rural areas
- in the past, professional couples with young children would have moved out to the suburbs when they could afford it but the rising costs and time involved in commuting has encouraged more young families to remain in this city
11
Q
how is rural-urban migration impacting urban growth and how is it changing?
A
- the reasons for rural-urban migration are often divided in push and pull factors
- most rural-urban migration is occurring in developing/emerging countries and economies e.g. China has seen 150 million internal rural-urban migrants leading to 7 megacities
- developing world cities such as Lagos has experienced high growth from 1.4 million in 1970 to 21 million in recent years
12
Q
what are some push factors associated with rural-urban migration?
A
1) desertification- dry land due to lack of rainfall means it is not suitable for farmers to be able to grow their crops so there is a decrease in economic decline and have to move to find alternative jobs
2) high levels of local diseases and inadequate medical provision
3) agriculture is increasingly being organised globally, land previously used to grow food for local people is now used to produce cash crops for sale to higher income countries meaning many traditional rural communities have been driven off their land and into cities
3) natural disasters such as floods, tropical storms and earthquakes- people flee rural areas and do not return
4) wars and civil strife can cause people to flee their land
13
Q
what are some pull factors associated with rural-urban migration?
A
1) employment in factories and service industries e.g. hotels, which is better paid than work in rural areas meaning their is an increasingly high demand for unskilled labour in cities
2) earning money from the informal sector, for example, selling goods on the street or providing transport
3) better quality social provisions, from basic needs, such as education and healthcare to entertainment and tourism
4) a perceived better quality of life in the city, fed in part by images in the media
14
Q
what is industrialisation and how does it contribute to urbanisation?
A
- industrialisation is when a country moves from an agricultural means of production to a manufacturing means of production so increases higher paid jobs
- for example, Shenzhen in China is a company which manufactures products for apple, and multi-national companies like these attract people (particularly in NEE’s)
15
Q
what are the possible consequences of urbanisation and urban growth?
A
1) urban sprawl
2) shortages of housing in lower-income countries
3) shortage of affordable housing in high-income cities
4) lack of urban services and waster disposal
5) unemployment and under-employment
6) transport issues
16
Q
why is urban sprawl outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- urban sprawl is defined as the spread of an urban area into the surrounding countryside
social impacts- can have serious impacts on water quantity and quality, covering the countryside with impermeable surfaces means that rainwater is unable to soak into the ground and replenish the groundwater aquifers, in addition it can lead to greater water run-off and increased flood risk
economic impacts- requires more roads and infrastructure e.g. pipes, cables and wires meaning it is less economically efficient to service low-density rural areas compared to urban developments with the same number of households
environmental impacts- urban sprawl into rural areas ranks as one of the main causes of wildlife habitat loss - causes more commuting from the suburbs to the city and thus more fuel consumption and traffic congestion
- can increase air pollution since a more car-dependent lifestyle leads to increases in fossil fuel consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases, the areas may also experience higher temperatures in line with the urban heat island effect
- contributed to a loss of farmland and open spaces which in turn led to the loss of fresh local food sources with greater food miles as a result
17
Q
why is the shortage of housing in low-income countries outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- population density tends to be high in urban areas and leads to the shortage of accommodation, leading to the presence of large areas of informal and often inadequate housing, normally developed on the edge of the city or in areas of low land value prone to environmental hazards
- the settlements tend to have limited access to basic infrastructure such as water, electricity and waste disposal and a lack pf services such as health centres and schools
- in 2017, it was estimated that about 900 million people lived in slums and that number rose to 1.6 billion if you include different types of informal settlements, this is approx. 25% of the worlds urban population
- by 2030, it is estimated that one in 4 people globally will live in a slum or settlement
18
Q
why is the shortage of affordable housing in HIC’s outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- shortage of affordable housing is a key problem in many wealthy cities
- in the UK, the rising demand for accommodation in cities has led to dramatic increase in both house prices and rental costs
- in London, average house process rose by almost 70% between 2010 and 2019, fuelled partly by in0migration, gentrification and by the our chasing is a major global hub and overseas investors buy properties in London to diversify their international portfolio
19
Q
why is the lack of urban services and waste disposal outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- financial restraints in LIC’s can result in this problem with the maintenance of infrastructure such as roads, sewers and drainage is also limited resulting in traffic congestion, polluted watercourses, flooding and rapid spread of disease e.g. in India, the old pipeline could not keep up with urbanisation
- waste disposal poses a further problem, the amount of waste increases year-on-years, but there physical, economic and environmental restraints on it’s disposal e.g. In Ethiopia, the city authority is able to deal with two-thirds of the rubbish but the rest is left to private counsellors or dumped in streets or rivers
- however, in other cities, refusal is seen as a way to make money:
- old car tyres are cut up and used to make cheap sandals
- washing machine doors are used as kitchen bowls, and the drums as storage units
- glass bottles are collected and returned to stores for refilling
- food waste is collected and fed to animals or composted for use on vegetable plots
- tin cans and old oil drums are used to make charcoal stoves, lamps, buckets and metal tips for ploughs
20
Q
why is unemployment under employment outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- high proportions of the people who move to cities are relatively young so there is a considerable pressure to create sufficient jobs
- unemployment rates are typically high although official data is hard to find and many migrants find employment in informal work such as street hawking
- under-employment refers to a situation in which a person is not doing work that makes full use of their skills and abilities, this may occur when a migrant moves to a new city
21
Q
why is transport issues outlined as a consequence from urbanisation?
A
- the process of urbanisation and suburbanisation have led to increased traffic in cities across the world, which has created more congestion and pollution, damaging human health and wasting billions of pounds in lose productivity
- the spread of houses into the suburbs and beyond has created surges of morning and evening commuters and traffic flows for shopping, entertainment and other commercial services add to the problem
- however, city planners built wider roads as a solution but the more roads created the more cars they attracted
22
Q
what is suburbanisation?
A
- the movement of people from living in the inner parts of a city to living on the outer edges
- it has been facilitated by the development of transport networks and the increase in ownership of private cars allowing people to commute to work
23
Q
what are the characteristics of a suburbanised place?
A
- outlying areas of city which are close enough to the city centre to be accessible to commuters
- increases the proportion of people that live in towns and cities in comparison to those in rural areas
- greater amount of space in the suburbs
- puts pressure on greenfield sites and nature as they are predominantly residential in nature and have rural characteristics such as larger gardens and tree-lined avenues
24
Q
what is a green belt?
A
- a tract of open land consisting of farmland woodland and open recreational areas surrounding urban areas
- they are protected by law from new building, unless the government deems it necessary to build there
25
how has suburbanisation changed over the years?
1930's- there were few planning controls and urban growth took place alongside main roads known as ribbon development
1940's- this growth and growth between the ribbons become a cause for concern leading to creation of green belts
1950's/60's- suburban expansion has increased and has been better planned and large-scale construction of council housing took place on the only land available which was the suburban fringe
1970's- move towards home ownership, which led to private housing estates being built, also on the urban fringe and building in these areas allowed people to have more land for gardens and more public open space
present- new housing estates have been built in suburban areas, along with local shopping centres and schools
26
what are the causes of suburbanisation?
1) pull factors to suburban areas- decentralisation as there was a shift of jobs into service sectors, often tend to be in non-centralised locations to make use of cheaper land prices
- attractions of edge of city location as there is access to motorways etc, room to expand, green space and a pleasant environment (less congested, less polluted environment)
- perceived as crime-free environments and they also demonstrate other key benefits such as woodland, parks and golf courses
2) push factors from city- deindustrialisation, loss of manufacturing jobs in the inner city, workers often lacked skills for jobs in service sectors, inner cities experiences spiral problems
3) enabling factors- advances in transport means people could commute longer distances, ICT and communications developments mean more people can work from home
27
what are the negative effects of suburbanisation on the population of cities?
- increasing social segregation within cities as the wealthy move out to the suburbs or gather in wealthy enclaves and the poor remain in the inner city
- diversion of funding away from the inner city areas to the suburbs to pay for new infrastructure and services
28
what is counter urbanisation?
- the movement of people from large urban areas into rural areas
29
what are the causes (push and pull factors) of counter urbanisation?
pull factors to rural:
- houses in smaller settlements are less densely packed and are often bigger and have more green spaces
- better quality of life due to the space being quieter and having more open space
- improved transport means that travel is easier and quicker
- improved communication links and faster broadband make it easier for people to work from home
- improved online services, such as online banking and online shopping means that less people need to routinely visit big cities
push factors from urban areas:
- many people move out of urban areas to escape the air and noise pollution of towns and cities
- house prices in the suburbs are increasing, this means that people need to move even further out
- suburbs and city centres have problems with congestion and parking
30
what evidence is there for counter-urbanisation?
- an increase in the use of a commuter railway station in the area, including car parking for commuters
- increased value of houses in the area
- the construction of more executive housing in the area, often on newly designated building land, following the demolition of old properties
- conversion of former farm buildings to exclusive residences
31
how is counter urbanisation contributing to social and demographic changes in rural settlements?
counter urbanisation is one of a number of processes contributing to a social and demographic change in rural settlements, sometimes referred to as the rural turnaround, this may include:
- the out-migration of young village-born adults seeking education and employment opportunities elsewhere
- the decline of the elderly village-born population, through deaths
- the in-migration of young middle-aged married couples or families with young children
- the in-migration of younger, more affluent people, which results in increased house prices
32
what are the potential positive impacts of counter urbanisation?
- some shops see an increase in business- newer residents / retired people have more disposable income
- older housing and building are restored by housing developers, farmers are able to make money by selling land
- as newer residents (with families) move into smaller towns and villages the local services, such as schools are able to stay open as they may have had to close due to a lack of students
- people are moving with more money which can attract companies and increase economic income
- less pollution and congestion in urban areas due to less travel for work as most can now work from home
33
what are the potential negative impacts of counter urbanisation?
- the newer developments might affect the local character of the area as locals can be pushed out
- due to more residents having the ability to travel to cities and shop online the local shops and services may close
- rural roads and infrastructure will struggle to cope with traffic, this causes congestion and air pollution
- schools may have to close it all the new residents are older people with no children
- house prices are going to increase due to higher demands, this might mean only older people can afford the housing, and it may push the local people out of the area
34
outline how communities, companies and councils are attempting to overcome some of these challenges?
- companies are trying to overcome these challenges by offering mobile services e.g. NatWest offers a mobile banking van that visits areas in Cornwall and Devon
- local councils create developments that only allow houses that fit in with the local area to be built e.g. traditional styles
- as well as this, there is also local occupancy so there are limited opportunities for new housing development which meets the need for locals rather than external demands
35
what is urban resurgence?
- refers to the movement of people back to the city centres and the regeneration, both economic and structural, of an urban areas which has suffered a period of decline
36
what evidence is there for urban resurgence?
- urban resurgence is evident in the changing landscape of a city where areas may contain the industrial architecture of the past including factories and warehouses but increasingly there have been converted into housing or commercial use
- many urban redevelopment schemes have successfully transformed run-down areas, rebranding them as fashionable districts or quarters which then attract more newcomers, often young professionals with a high disposable income
37
how might urban resurgence exacerbate social and economic inequalities?
- the movement of people back to urban areas can increase the pressure that is put on urban infrastructure due to greater demand, so house prices rise and people become displaced
- this further increases the gap of inequality between the rick and the poor as not everyone benefits from resurgence
38
describe the demographic change which has occurred in cities following urban resurgence?
- urban resurgence has displayed an increase in younger people who are moving out and away from their childhood homes and coming back to the city as well as remaining in cities even when they start a family which expands the younger population
- however, there is also a remained older population which creates a balance between the population in cities
39
give examples of urban resurgence over the changing years.
- many American cities including New York, Boston and Los Angeles have experience an urban resurgence in recent decades
- the second half of the 20th century saw a huge population decline in urban areas as families increasingly moved out to the suburbs, this was accompanied by the loss of manufacturing and retail businesses and soon the traditional 'downtown areas'
- the 1990s saw the beginning of a resurgence due to a sustained period of national economic growth, successful regeneration schemes and more attractive urban design has helped revive the fortunes of many American cities
- additionally, young people are remaining in cities even when they start a family, while many older people who's children have left home are moving back to the city to be close to urban services and this population revival increases demand for services and has fuelled a prosperous urban economy in many cities
40
define 'dead heart syndrome'.
- this is known as the decline of urban areas such as decline in the population, manufacturing and retail businesses along with neighbouring residential areas
41
who is urban resurgence mainly driven by?
- urban resurgence is often driven by government-led regeneration schemes but there are wider economic, social and demographic processes which also are important
- redevelopment by private companies has led to the wholesale transformation of parts of UK cities in recent years served to attract further investment
- globalisation and technological change have facilitated the resurgence of some urban areas as well as major sports events such as the London Olympics bringing much needed investment to former industrial parts of east London
42
how did the city of New York experience urban resurgence?
- urban resurgence is evident in New York with the changing nature of the New York City High Line- a 1.5 mile long section of elevated rail track built originally to carry goods to and from Manhattan's largest industrial district
- it was abandoned in the 1980's as the Lower West Side underwent a period of manufacturing decline but has been successfully redeveloped in the 2000's as an elevated park and walkway lined with trees, grasses and shrubs
43
what positive aspects have come from the New York High Line?
- the walkway has become a site for artistic commissions and cultural events and the five million annual visitors have increased spending in local shops and cafes as well as encouraging real estate development in the neighbourhoods that line it's route
- the High line has given new life to a piece of industrial infrastructure as a public green space and functions essentially like a green roof
- porous pathways contain open joints so water can drain between planks, cutting down on the amount of storm-water that runs off the site into the sewer system
- it offers peace and a sense of community, contains flowers, fresh air and water views
44
what is de-industrialisation?
- refers to the loss of jobs in the manufacturing sector within a certain area
45
what are the 3 main causes of de-industrialisation in the UK?
- by the 1980's, many of the older industrial cities were experiencing severs economic problems associated with the decline of manufacturing
1) mechanisation- most firms can produce their goods more cheaply by using machines rather than people
2) competition from abroad, particularly the rapidly industrialising countries of the time such as China, India
3) reduced demand for traditional products as new materials and technologies have been developed
46
describe the spatial and temporal patterns of manufacturing job losses in the UK and the trends in employees from 1980-2020.
- there was an overall downward trend in manufacturing employment in the UK and places such as Manchester, Liverpool and Sheffield suffered more extensive job losses than cities with more diverse economies
- in the north-east there was mostly job loss withing manufacturing, coal and steel
- in the north jobs were mainly lost in textile and clothing
- in central Britain jobs were lost in textiles and clothing
- in south Wales jobs were lost in coal and steel
47
how did unemployment rates differ in the UK between 1971 and 2023 and what were the main reasons for this change?
- In the early 1980's there was a rapid increase in the rate of unemployment (this was the peak) and this was due to the start of de-industrialisation within Britain that resulted in the closure of factories and the loss of a significant economic industry
- In the 1990's, there was a decline in unemployment and this was due to the UK experiencing economic growth and a shit towards service sector which increased job opportunities that made up for the loss
- throughout the rest of the years up to 2023 there was a fluctuation of unemployment rates including another increase in 1993 and again in 2008 due to a recession from a global financial crisis and then covid struck in 2020 reducing the unemployment levels
48
why did some cities or regions experience greater decline due to de-industrialisation?
- in the 1970's there was a loss of the textile industry which greatly impacted certain areas where the majority of the population had jobs in that sector and this also had a knock on effect on shops who sold the goods to the factories
- some areas had no other jobs being created so there was no money to develop schools meaning kids grew up and stayed unemployed leading to insufficient supplies of money
- unemployed people had no other transferable skills mixed with the inadequate government response
- inner cities tended to struggled most as they contained most of the old types of workplace that were closed down and left with old plants with the oldest production techniques, lowest productivity and most unionised workforces. as as well as this, inner cities also lacked suitable land for the expansion of existing manufacturing so new investment tended to focus on the edge of urban areas and rural locations
49
what were the economic impacts of de-industrialisation on urban areas?
- loss of jobs and personal disposable incomes
- closure of other businesses which support closing industry
- loss of tax incomes to the local authority and potential decline in services
- increase in demand for state benefits
- loss of income in the service sector as a result of falling spending power of the local population
- decline in property prices as out-migration occurs
- de-industrialisation led to the de-multiplier effect in the urban areas affected
50
what were the social impacts of de-industrialisation on urban areas?
- increased unemployment leading to inequality withing jobs
- impact of health due to long-term unemployment
- higher levels of deprivation
- out-migration of population, usually those who are better qualified and more prosperous
- higher levles of crime, family breakdown, alcohol and drug abuse and other social problems (increased criminal activity)
- loss of confidence and morale in local population
51
what were the environmental impacts of de-industrialisation on urban areas?
- derelict land and buildings
- long term pollution of land from 'dirty' industries such as dye works and iron foundries remains a problem because there is no money for land remediation
- deteriorating infrastructure
- reduced maintenance of local housing caused by lower personal and local authority incomes
- positive environmental impacts have been a reduction in noise, land and water pollution and reduced traffic congestion
- vandalism made areas unattractive
52
what are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors / jobs?
primary- farming and resource extraction
secondary- manufacturing
tertiary- services e.g. education, police, banking etc
quaternary- research and development
53
describe and explain the shift in the UK economy and how this economic shift varied spatially?
- the UK's economy has shifted significantly due to the shift in the jobs and sectors. For example, throughout the late 1980's sectors such as the secondary industry (manufacturing) suffered major decline due to de-industrialisation
- however, in the early 90's the UK experiences economic growth and a shift towards the tertiary industry with jobs mainly in the service sector e.g. services have increased to over 75% and manufacturing went down to 15% from 26% in the 1950's
- cities such as London, which are connected to other global services find it easier to attract higher skilled services and employees such as Canary Wharf which is located in the centre of London. but as cities become wealthier there is a demand for leisure services which therefore spatially vary all across parts of the UK such as food deliveries and cafes.
54
what problems have occurred from de-industrialisation?
- many of the men who lost jobs through de-industrialisation have continued to suffer from long-term unemployment
- many of the service jobs created are part time or temporary meaning people cannot rely on them and can lead to economic difficulties for a person
- the number of service jobs created has not always made up for the loss of manufacturing jobs so an area can experience economic decline due to lack of job opportunities and employment
- inner city locations have been avoided by both service industries and newer manufacturing companies leading to continued inner city decline
