Core Political Ideology Flashcards
(38 cards)
What are the key beliefs of liberals?
- Liberals believe in equality of opportunity not equality of outcome (key difference between them + socialists)
- Liberals aim to maximise liberty not equality
- Believe that society must give up individual liberty to achieve equality; the aim of equality must be dropped to achieve individual liberty
- Rawls: inequality can be justified if it benefits society as a whole; cannot be justified if it leads to the poorest being worse off than they were before
- Believe that illiberal thoughts are allowed but not illiberal actions. Liberals don’t tolerate the intolerable; harm principle
- e.g FGM is a cultural practice that isn’t tolerated by liberals
What is postive and negative freedom?
Positive freedom; freedom to perform a certain activity without outside interference
Negative freedom; freedom from discrimination or harm
How do liberals view the state?
- State is ‘neccessary’ to avoid disorder but ‘evil’ as it can remove individual liberty
- “Agents of the state” should limit their actions
- Liberals try to restrict state power + aim to strenthen human rights
- Should be legislation + constitutional safeguards to protect human rights + liberty
- Liberals strongly favour open government (FOIA 2000)
What to classical and modern liberals disagree on when it comes to the state’s involvement in the economy
Both classical + modern liberal seek to promote liberty
* Classical liberals beliece that ‘trickle down’ econmics allows wealth to reach the poorest through marker activity
* Modern liberals believe that the state needs to use progressive taxation + the ‘wefare state’ to help the poorest
Progressive taxation = a tax system, in which those on a higher income pay a higher % of their income tax
Explain Bentham’s utilitarian’ state
- Bentham’s utilitarian state is a system which aims to maximise overall happiness and minimise suffering through democracy as people would be inclined not to prioritise their own interests but that of the whole of society thus allowing for social progress
- Bentham introduced the idea that governments should act in a way which maximises the overall happiness of the majority by focusing on the general welfare of the country
- Once widespread education had been achieved, liberal values could be furthered, refining Bentham’s utilitarian state as people would vote in the interests of all, not just in their own selfish interests
Explain Keynes’s beliefs about capitalism and what type of liberalism it is
- Modern liberalism
- Keynes rejected the argument that the market is a self-correcting mechanism naturally inclined towards reaching a state of equilibrium
- Believed that laissez-faire capitalism with its cycles of recession and unemployment did nothing to advance individualism
- Keynes argued that the state must steer the economy and manage demand so that full employment could be secured, without which individual liberty could not be achieved
- Believed the state could ‘fine-tune’ the economy by manipulating the level of demand within the economy
- An increase in government spending and a reduction in taxation would bolster demand, whereas a
cut in government spending and an increase in taxation would lower consumer demand; so gov could deal with both inflation + unemployment
Explain what Rawls believed about how the enlarged state and what type of liberal belief it is
Modern classical liberalism
* Rawls set out to show that while an enlarged state would require individuals sacrificing some of their money in the form of progressive taxation
* Rawls argued that the enabling state was perfectly consistent with the liberal state of government by consent
* * Rawls argued that society should look to ameliorate the condition of the least fortunate in society
* Rawls didn’t argue for equality of outcome and accepted that there would be inequality depending on an individual’s efforts
* Rawls proposed the ‘original position’ where individuals make decisions under a ‘veil of ignorance’ where individuals are unaware of their social position, gender, talents and other characteristics; allows for fair and impartial decision-making
* Rawls argued for the Liberal Position in which everyone should have equal basic liberties
* Difference Principal in which social and economic inequalities should only exist if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of society
* Rawls proposed that an enabling state requiring progressive taxation and wealth redistribution create a more equitable society.
Explain why modern liberals aren’t in favour of direct democracy
- Modern Liberals are not in favour of direct democracy, fearing that referendums and initiatives threaten the ‘tyranny of the majority’
- Modern liberals have even been willing to uphold human rights at the expense of representative democracy
- Support for the Human Rights Act (1998), transferring power from elected representatives to unelected judges and their support for supranational bodies such as the EU
- Example; Brexit referendum, 51.9% said Yes and 48.1% voted No
- This has led to the tyranny of the majority as there wasn’t as needed in other countries’ supermajority and a complex issue was oversimplified to the public leading to inadequate knowledge among voters regarding the issue. Further, the multifaceted issue was simplified to a yes/no vote.
Explain all of Locke’s key ideas about social contract theory, limited government, and a stateless society
Locke (Early Classical Liberalism)
* Social contract theory– society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement
* Limited government– that government should be limited and based on consent from below
* Locke begins with the assumption that individuals are rational entities. When offering their consent to the state, they are at the same time promoting their own self-interest. As rational entities, we fully acknowledge that our liberties are best protected via governance by the state to uphold basic liberties and protect us from the threat of foreign invasion and social disorder
* Consent may be provided on a formal basis via an election or on an informal setting as a consequence of tacit consent
* * If we do not accept the laws of the land a sanction may be imposed; if the state were to act in violation of the contract, the people are entitled to withdraw their consent
* Argued that usingforce to change someone’s beliefs is irrational
Explain Wollstonecraft key ideas about women in terms of liberal ideas and formal equality
Wollstonecraft (Early Classical Liberalism)
* Reason – women are rational and independent beings capable of reason
* Formal equality – in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have careers
* Wollstonecraft is best-known for her work ‘A vindication of the rights of woman’ in which she argued that both men and women should be treated equally as rational human beings. She also claimed that women were not naturally inferior to men, but may appear to be because they’ve been denied educational opportunities
* Wollstonecraft advocated for formal equality in which women were entitled to the same civil liberties as men so women would be able to experience a life of genuine liberty
Explain Mill’s key ideas about the harm principle, tolerance + the type of actions humans take + state involvement
John Stuart Mill (Later Classical Liberalism)
* Harm principle– that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals
* Tolerance – belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct
* Mill makes a crucial distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions; we should be free to pursue those actions that in no way constrain the liberty of others
* Mill hoped that developmental individualism would advance individual potential
* This would promote a liberal consensus in society, safeguarding tolerance, rationality and individualism
* Argued that advanced societies showed that individuals were not autonomous but were actually subject to social and economic factors
* So self-realisation was not possible for some individuals, so. social justice would be required if individuals were to fulfil their potential
Explain Mill’s key ideas about despotism of custom, how tolerance operates in society + how to figure out the truth + facts
Later Classical Liberalism
* ‘Despotism of custom’, Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion; believes there is a tendency to tell everyone to act in the same manner
Despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression
* To guard against the despotism of custom, we must avoid forcing our opinions on others unless we are certain of their truth
* A liberal society is one that tolerates the full diversity of lifestyles
* Mill also points out that majority opinion can be wrong as the majority holds no true authority and no absolute certainty
Explain Mill’s beliefs about how democracy would work in modern day society and what type of liberal belief it is
Later classical liberalism
*Mill sought to make the case for representative democracy, anticipating universal suffrage
* An enlarged electorate would not make decisions for themselves but would elect representatives to make decisions for them
* Such representatives would not side with the majority but would seek to accommodate the various opinions in society, thereby producing the broad consent of all
* Mill was also concerned that the majority of voters were ill-equipped to choose intelligent representatives that would act rationally and argued that universal suffrage should be preceded by universal education
* Mill’s liberal view of a minimal state and negative freedom made him reluctant to sanction state intervention to provide state education
Explain Friedan’s key ideas about legal equality + opportunities for women + what stops women from advancing out of their role
Friedan (Modern Liberal)
* Legal equality – women are as capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned
* Equal opportunity – women are being held back from their potential because of the limited number of jobs that are ‘acceptable’ for women
* * Friedan argued that interventionist agencies like the EEOC were consistent with liberal values as the criminalisation of sexual discrimination merely protected the rights of certain sections of society, thereby consistent with Mill’s harm principle
Give A02 examples of times when Conservatives have been flexible with their policies
- University Tution Fees- in 2005 the Tories said that they wanted to scrap fees - raised to £9000 in 2011
- Homosexuality - Thatcher introduced Section 28 - Cameron then apolgised for Section 28 in 2009
- May - originally a Remainerbut then “getting on with the job” of negotiating Brexit
- Sunak - originally against Rwanda Bill - decied to go ahead + enforce it - went to the Supreme Court rather than drop the matter
Explain the key beliefs of One-Nation Conservatism
- Response to emergence of capitalism
- Opposed to major radical changes in society
- Strong support for the values which generate a sense of national unity + social cohesion
Role of the State:
1. Natural arbitrator to prevent chaos + anarchy
2.Re-distribution of wealth because the rich have a duty to the poor
3. The ‘welfare state’ is a good safety net - prevents revolution + social unrest
4. State shouldn’t interfere too much in people’s individuals lives - nanny state
Explain New Right views on the economy
- The NR argues that by disengaging from the economcy + allowing it to operate as it pleases the state can focus on its purpose of providing order + security as Hobbes argues
- The NR believe that a capitalist economy is prosperous + will lead to ‘popular capitaism’ + destroy socialism - it will also fund the state to provide a stronger army, police + other defensive agencies
Explain how traditional conservatism clashes with capitalism
- Traditional conservatives support Keynesian economic policies which allowed the state to provide full employment+ protected against the rise of populism
- Traditional conservatives are reluctant capitalists; capitalism supports property ownership, inequality + hierarchy but laissez-faire economics supports an optimistic view that human nature should be left alone
- Thus they support a limited form of free-market capitalism known as protectionism where state intervention where the economy is protected against the excesses of the free-market by imposing tariffs + duties
Explain conservativism’s view on human nature
- Conservatism argues that human nature is flawed + humans desire more freedom due to their inherent selfishness
- Burke criticsed the idea that human nature was guided by reason alone + believed humans were more communal
- Conservatism’s view of human nature means that they argue for a decisive + authoritative state to deal with human imperfection
Explain Hobbes key ideas on human nature, the state and economy
Traditional Conservative
* Very skeptical view of human nature believed that in the state of nature humans were ‘solitary,poor, nasty, brutish and short’ before the state emerged
* Hobbes argued that the ‘natural rights’ didn’t exist before the creation of the state
* Hobbes argued that there needed to be a formal authority to define right + wrong + to prevent ‘natural chaos’ from ensuing
* Believed that people would seek a social contract with the state- the state would provide security + order
* Argued for the state to have autocratic power + for this power to not be divided up
* Hobbes believed that for the economy to function it requires order that the strong state would provide
Explain Burke’s key ideas on human nature, society and economy
Traditional Conservative
* Believed that humans were imperfect, that they didn’t act with reason + that there was a gap between what people wanted + could achieve
* Burke also believed that society was like a plant (organicism) + so that we should keep the status quo + any changes made should be careful + subtle
* Burke believed that society should be looked at in the reality of what it is (empiricism) + not look at the ideals of what society could be
* Burke also believed that society is made up of ‘little plattons’ - which would be largely self-regulating (nullify the negatives of human nature)
* Burke supported the existence of elites in society, dismissed equality + argued for paternalism instead
* Burke supported free market economics + laissez-faire economics
Explain Oakeshott’s key ideas about the economy, human nature and society
One-Nation Conservative
* Believed that humans were terrible but faliable + that creating a perfect society would be impossible but there was the possibility for improvement
* Favoured a society of local communities
* Believed the economy needed to be moderated by the state as otherwise they would be volitile
* Proposed pragmatic trial + error were the best way to achieve results - “to be Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried” (change to conserve + status quo)
* Oakeshott belived that the state’s job is to prevent bad not to create good
* Oakeshott - Conservatism ensures that the “cure is not worse than the disease”
Explain Rand’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy
New Right
* Believed that individuals were the key to the nations success - believed in ‘objectivism’ meaning that people were guided by self-interest
* Selfishness lead to a better society as everyone strives to be better and achieve self realisation we all help each other
* Rand saw society in terms of atomism - meaning that it’s a collection of individuals - society doesn’t exist as an entity
* Argued for the rolling back of the state + for significant tax cuts - argued for small strong state to have law + order
* Rand wanted complete freedom in the market
* Rand was a libertarian economically + on social issues (abortion, homosexuality)
Explain Nozick’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy
New Right
* Nozick had a positive view of human nature belived that individuals can achieve their full potential
* Believed the growth of the state was a great threat to individual freedom + that the welfare state was causing a dependacy culture
* Argued for a minarchist state - outsource public services to private companies ‘tax for the most part is theft’
* Argued that in society they’re self-sufficient communities
* Believed the state should leave people alone economically but was a liberal on social issues
