Global Politics Flashcards
(116 cards)
1
Q
Define global governance
and security dilemma
A
- Global governance; states have the most authority in global politics + represent their own national interests. Dalton used the Billiard Ball Model to show how states impact the other but precedence’s over IGOs
- Security dilemma; as one states defences build up others respond increasing tensions between the two states. China’s expansion into territorial waters in South China sea has led to the US patrolling nearby ‘international’ waters
2
Q
Define anarchical society and international anarchy
A
- Anarchical society; attempts to bring government structures together to deal with common interests. E.g. Taking military action through a UNSC Resolution
- International Anarchy; states are self-contained units which frequently clash where there is no authority as as legitimate or powerful as the nation-state. US-led + UK-backed invasion of Iraq shows the disorder of global politics without a clear UNSC Resolution
3
Q
Explain how nation states have primacy over the EU and UN
A
- EU; 2016 Brexit vote meant the UK was the first member to leave the EU giving them a weaker global presence + links to the US. Members like Hungary are deeply critical + more Euroscptic parties are being elected across the EU
- UN; every member state (193) has one vote - for the Security Council, Economic + Social Council + budgetary decisions require a 2/3 majority but other votes only need a majority. Members often also abstain meaning no action can be taken e.g UK on Palestine
4
Q
Explain how nation-states have primacy over the G7 and Paris Climate Change Conference
A
- G7; G7 has no formal rules which means control over members which ensures like-minded values + achieves more than organisations like the G20 e.g. US $50 billion loan to Ukraine agreed recently
- Paris Climate Change Conference; 157 parties have committed to greenhouse gas emissions reduction but only 57 have quantified such targets into domestic policies + only 17 (+EU) look beyond targets for 2030
5
Q
Example of multipolarity causing global instability
A
Competition In The Arctic - Example Of A Multipolar World Order Leading To Greater Global Instability:
- In 2025, the Arctic has become a key point of geopolitical competition (especially the U.S. and Russia), due to the potential for a new sea lane that reduced the travel time for goods between Europe and Asia, as well as due to the potential for key natural resource reserves/minerals in the Arctic
- Russia has increased its military presence in the Arctic, including by launching a nuclear-powered submarine in the area
- Trump has spoken both of acquiring Greenland by force
6
Q
Example of the shift away from unipolairty
A
Expansion Of The BRICs in 2024 and 2025
- In 2024 and 2025, Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, and the United Arab Emirates joining in 2024, and Indonesia becoming the first Southeast Asian nation to become a member in 2025
- Growing challenge to Western-dominated institutions with countries more willing to align themselves with Russia and China who are dominant in the group
- BRICs group has coordinated a number of policies that challenged U.S. hegemony, including
1. Move away from dependence on the dollar
2. Cooperation on artificial intelligence
3. Creating ‘BRICS Pay’; a system to allow financial transactions without having to rely on Western banks
7
Q
Define unipolarity and mulitpolarity with the advantages and disadvantages of both
A
-
Unipolarity; a distribution of power in which one state eexercises most of the influence
e.g rise of US hegemony
Adavantages: US provided a sense world peace - spread ideas of free trade + democracy
Disadvantages: Highly unstable emerging states resent the one hegemonic state
-
Multipolarity; more than two-states have nearly equal amounts of influence
e.g increase in power of BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India +China)
Advantages: Liberals argue the lack of existance of a single world power means states are more likely to cooperate with global goverance
Disadvantages: Neorealists argue that chance of misjuding the intentions of other states + increases the chances of war due to external balancing
8
Q
Define bipolarity and balance of power with the advantages and disadvantages of both
A
-
Bipolarity; a system where world order in which the majority of global economic, military + cultural influence is held between two states
e.g Cold War- US + USSR vying for power
Advantages: promote peace as neither side was capable of eliminating the other
Disadvantages: Destabling + dangerous as it almost led to the possibility of MAD
-
Balance of power; national security is enhanced when militant capability is distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate the other
e.g Nuclear proliferation + fear of MAD led to uneasy balances of power
Advantages: countries increase their own defence systems (Realist POV)
Disadvantages: Mearsheimer argues it’s an unstable distribution of power as it’s constantly shifting
9
Q
Explain the key beliefs/theories of realism
A
- Structural realism = nation-states seek to advance their own interests at the expanse of other nation states
- Nation-states don’t allow supranational authority greater than themselves as global relations are archaic are as no ‘body’ enforces international law
- States shouldn’t have to meet humanitarian aims - destablises international relations
- Negative interpretations of human nature views humans as selfish + egotistical
- e.g Trans-Pacific Partnership (IGO) was unable to exist which aimed to lower tarrifs didn’t exist due to US withdrawal in 2017
- e.g EU raised import taxes on Britain after the left the IGO
10
Q
Explain the practical policies of liberalism
A
- Human nature isn’t fixed so states can improve
- Efforts should be made to prevent + reduce conflicts which are avoidable through IGOs e.g UN
- Military powers can be counterproductive
- States should be committed to individual liberty e.g human rights
- Power should be shared equally as it leads to stability through things like economic cooperation reducing chances of conflict
- Possible to impose order on humans in a rule-based system of international law e.g 2012 EU won Nobel Peace Prize
11
Q
Explain the views of Waltz, Bull, Morgenthau and Mearsheimer - realist thinkers
A
Waltz - favours bipolarity over multipolarity as it lead to easier negotiations + that states live in a self help system where they build up their own security apparatus through military power
Bull - identified anarchical society in global politics + a society of states emerged to promote common interests + states compete with the other
Morgenthau - argues people are selfish + try to dominate so moral considerations are less important than national interests + states defend their own national intests against perceived threats
Mearsheimer - explained that conflict + competition for power continues + secure hegemony + all states find ways to increase power
12
Q
Explain the relationship between IGOs and states
A
- IGOs only exist because they have been created by states who retain the ultimate power e.g Britain leaving the EU, African states leaving the ICC in protest at bias against them
- Failure of UNSC to agree to a resolution on Israeli-Palestinian ceasefire due to US vetos shows IGOs are dependant on member states
- States retain the power to act unilaterally e.g UK air strikes on the Houthis - isolationism
13
Q
Explain Russia’s position with NATO and events which have strained the relationship
A
- Russia supported Assad’s regime in Syria with air strike in 2015
- Russia began to increase its military influences in response to the expansion of NATO e.g annexation of Crimea in 2014
- Russian National Security Strategy declared that NATOs build up forces in countries bordering it which wasn’t consistent in international law
- Trump called for all NATO member states to pay the fair share of contribution - 2% of GDP + called NATO ‘obsolete’
14
Q
Explain the realist theory; Billard Ball Model
A
- Billard Ball Model is under pressure due to complex interdependance of interconnected states
- Push factors seperate nation-states such as scare resources, war
- Pull factors bring sovereign states together such as trade agreements
- Every billard ball is sovereign so protected from IGOs
15
Q
Explain an example of global anarchy between states
A
- In the South China Sea (contains oil + gas) - China has attempted to expand its territorial waters by increasing patrols + building islands
- US has responded through Freedom of Navigation Patrols in ‘international waters’ - in 2013 the UN tribunal ruled that China wasn’t complying with the UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea
16
Q
Explain the views of Keohane, Fukuyama and Ohmae - liberal thinkers
A
Keohane - challenges ideas that states reject international cooperation + that international law can achieve shared solutions. Democracy plays a key role in preventing conflict+ international trade binds states together as they are more interdependant
Fukuyama - liberal democracy since the end of the Cold War have become the undisputed form of human government + argues its the ‘endpoint of mankind’s ideological development’. International law is possible to hold all states to account e.g Universal Declaration of Human Rights + reject the zero-sum game
Ohmae - globalisation brought a shift in society + states are losing their economic power + aren’t the main participants in the global economy. NGOs + IGOs help states become aware of different viewpoints + policies
17
Q
Explain key examples of liberal beliefs on IGOs and how they restrict conflict
A
- WTO has fostered trade through greater transparency among trading nations + an increase in developed countries investing in developing economies
- Political decisions are more globalised e.g Ebola crisis 2015 + Cornovirus pandemic 2020 - Interpol faciliating international police co-operation + Paris Climate Agreemet to tackle climate change
- Turkey has been denied membership to the EU because they fail to meet the requirments - democratic states offer a more stable base to society as they offer a framework for trade, transparency etc
- Democracy restricts conflicts as leaders are responsible to their electorates + people feel unpopular about war + often need permission from their legislature to engage in military action e.g 2013 when Parliament voted military action against Assad’s regime in Syria
18
Q
Give examples of Obama’s liberalist policies/actions
A
- Ended wars in Iraq + Afghanistan without a decisive victory
- US air strikes in Libya to prevent humanitarian crisis when Gaddafi threatened to kill rebel civillians with UNSC approval + Arab League support
- Struck a deal with Iran lifting economic sanctions in exchange for them stopping their nuclear weapon buildings programme
- During the 2010-12 Arab Uprisings they sided with the protestors which was a turn from previous US leaders who were allies of Mubarak in Egypt
19
Q
Give examples of Obama’s realist policies/actions
A
- Obama increased the use of drone strikes over boots on the ground for al-Qaeda targets which were highly effective (between Pakestian + Afghanistan)
2.Failed to react with military intervention when Assad used chemical weapons in Syria - struck a deal with Russia to disarm Assad of chemical weapons
- Obama failed to close the terrorist detention centre at Guantanamo Bay where terrorists are often tortured + held without trial
- Obama didn’t uphold international law when Russia annexed Crimea in 2014
20
Q
Explain Fukuyama’s key arguments on the Clash of Civilisation and criticisms of them
A
- Collapse of the USSR is proof that liberal democracies will become dominat
- Fukuyama argues that liberal democracy will lead to global stability due to the mutal interdependance of states with shared values
- National and ethnic conflicts will still occur but large scale ideological war will cease to exist
Critictisms
* Fukuyama claimed that liberal democracies had ended the class problems which have now been expanded by the growing class divide - leading to more people interested in socialism
* Far-right (anti-state) parties are rising across Europe and people are becoming more nihilistic leading to a potential for facism to restart
21
Q
Explain the work of Amnesty International, Greenpeace and Oxfam and use examples
A
- Amnesty International
* Influenced the EU to provide €30 million to the EU Human Rights Defenders Mechanism
* Influenced US states Illinois + Michigan to enforce new gun safety laws e.g universal background checks - Greenpeace
* Worked with the UN to implement the Global Ocean Treaty - Oxfam
* Use funding to help provide essential items, rebuild infrastructure and protect women + girls who are the most vunerable in the aftermath of the severe flooding in Bangladesh 2024
22
Q
Explain how the internet and technology has impacted globalisation
A
- Instantaneous trading of shares + capital has created a global marketplace
- TNCs have spread e.g McDonalds have franchies in 120 countries
- News networks have become global corporations e.g CNN, Sky News + social media has led to the spread of information e.g in the 2012 Arab Uprisings Al Jazeera played a role in provking the riots by undermining states abilities to control the flow of info the their people + in Bangladesh in 2024 they cut off Meta servies to stop people being able to coordinate riots
23
Q
Explain internal sovereignty and give examples of it within the UK
A
Internal; location of sovereignty within a state
- In the UK Westminster Parliament possesses legislative sovereignty
- The EU referendum suggests that popular sovereignty is more important than legislative sovereignty within the UK as Parliament was unprepared to ignore the vote
- The Brexit will change the location of sovereignty within the UK
- The PM exercises sovereignty on behlaf of the monarchy through using royal prerogative
- Sovereignty is fluid e.g Supreme Court’s ruiling that Parliament and not the government had the sovereign authority to trigger Article 50
24
Q
Give statistics showing the convergence between the global North and South
A
- An annual growth in the economy of developing countries 7.6%(rich countries had an annual growth of 4.5%)
- Global trade increasing from 2024, global trade reached a record $33 trillion, marking a 3.7% increase from the previous year
- 2000: Approximately $41 trillion, 2014: $78 trillion
- Growth was primarily driven by a 9% rise in services trade, contributing $700 billion, while goods trade grew by 2%, adding $500 billion
- By 2030 - 7.3% of the global population) are expected to live in extreme poverty -slower pace of poverty reduction
- Approximately 8.5% of the global population, live in extreme poverty - decrease from 38% in 1990
25
Give key examples of the successes of Asian countries economically
*Vietnam*: specialises in **low-cost manufactering labour costs 50%**
* Focus on **low corporation tax + tax relief on foreign companies sending dividends** back to their country
*Taiwan*: Focus on **exports annually of $350 billion**
* **High price consumer goods**
*South Kore*a: **5th largest global exporter** in **cars, computers and wireless telecommunications**
* 17X higher output than North Korea
China: **500 million people left poverty** since 1980 - enormus supply of **cheap labour to manufacture low-cost goods** which sells globally
* In **2017 exports from China** were **$2.2 trillion**
26
Give examples of the key resources of African countries
* *Botswana* - **diamonds = 90%** of exports
* *Cote d'Ivoire* - **cocoa beans** and butter = over **50%** of exports
* *Ethiopia* - **coffee = 24%** of exports
* *Ghana* - **gold + precious metals = 35%** of exports
* *Kenya* - **tea, coffee + spices = 27%** of exports
27
Explain the Gini coefficient with examples
* Gini coefficient measures inequality - higher the score = higher inquality
* **US = .41 and China = .42** (in China the **poorest 25% own only 1% of the wealth** and the **richest 1% own over 30%** of the nation's wealth)
28
Explain the critiques of economic globalisation by Prahalad, Stiglitz and Chua have
* *CK Prahalad* = **'economic pyramid' where the gap between the poor + wealthy has grown**
* *Stiglitz* arges that the increasing **inequality impedes economic growth** as economic trade liberalism favours **low spending on key public servcies**
* *Chua* argues that the **concentration of wealth creates resentment** and dissatisfaction **undermining social cohesion and encourages destablising political movements**
29
Explain the ways economic globalisation has entrenched poverty
1. In **Bangladesh** the **Rana Plaza garment factory** (where brands like Primark + Mango source cloth) has reported the **death of 1,129 employees**
2. **Human Rights Watch** found that **Chinese mining firms in Africa** have high levels of **human rights abuse**
3. Globalisation has led to a 'race to the bottom' in **countries cutting corners to attract business and growth**
30
Explain how economic globalisation has led to cultural and enivronmental destruction
Cultural/Environmental Destruction
1. Criticisms of TNC's abusing the environment e.g **Shell has degradation of the Niger Delta the UN estimates that TNCs caused $2.2 billion** worth of environmental damage
2. **TNCs withdraw their factories from countries with rising labour costs** such as **China to African countries or Vietnam**
3. TNCs lead to lower labour costs and the **destruction of local industires such as rice in Ghana + ground nuts in Sierra Leone** = crime + destroyes local cultures
4. Materalism has undermined cultural observances e.g **proletarianization in China has led to high numbers of suicides from disaffected youths at Focxconn factories**
31
Explain how economic globalisation has led to a democratic deficit
Democratic Deficit
1. **Too much power is given to IGOs e.g IMF, WTO who are lacking democratic accountability** - policies often harm the poorest and marginalised - Global North have little voting power
2. **Regional bodies e.g EU lack deomcratic accountability** e.g the **Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership will lower consumer and worker standards** - no democratic means to oppose this
32
Explain how economic globalisation has impacted job security
Job security
1. Many voters in the EU referndum argued that the **free flow of goods and labour undermined their job prospects + placed pressure on public services** due to mass immigration
2. According to the **Prebischer-SInger hypothesis exporting the products** fueling economic globalisation means **developing countries face declining trade**
* **Ha-Joon Chang argues developing countries need tariffs and subsidies against foregin imports** till they can **withstand foreign competition** to protect their industries
33
Explain how economic globalisation using World Systems theory
World Systems Theory
1. World systems theory - **neo-colonialism** as developing countires are **condemned to a peripheral status in global trade** - developing countries provide markets + workforced for **TNCs without developing their business interests**
34
Explain examples of how international law has advanced and not advanced conflicts
* International community **failed to prevent conflict in Afghanistan in the wake of the US invasion following the 9/11** terrorist attack
* In **2016 Russia asserted the primacy of its domestic law over the ECHR**. **Turkey suspended membership in the aftermath of the failed military coup in 2016** when many **condemned President Erdogan’s brutal suppression of opposition**
* Failings of the international community to prevent conflict - 2003 when a UNSC failed to prevent the **joint US-UK led invasion of Iraq. 500,000 may have died = rise of militant Islamism**
* **1991**, during the first Gulf War, the **UN condemned Saddam Hussein’s retribution against Shia + Kurdish rebels**. Led to **France, the UK + USA establishing no-fly zones within Iraqi airspace to protect Hussein’s opponents**
* Liberal hopes that the UN would emerge as the global arbiter of peace were premature. Break-up of the former Yugoslav Federation in 1991 plunged the Balkans into a brutal civil war. The **UN and EU intervened, it was not before the loss of tens of thousands of soldiers + civilians**
35
Explain examples of how international law has advanced and not advanced human rights
* *2023* the ECtHR delivered 1498 judgements: **735 against Russia, 30 against Turkey and 319 against Italy + 109 against Romania**
* ECHR lacks the coercive power to ensure states observe its rulings. Failure of the British government to **grant prisoners the vote despite ECtHR ruling. May agrued for British Bill of Rights**
* **1993 the UNSC established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to deal with war crimes during the Balkans** conflict. This led to further war crimes tribunals being established to deal with human rights abuses in Cambodia, Sierra Leone and Rwanda etc
* **2016**, Russia withdrew its signature from the Rome Statute when the **ICC ruled that its forces had illegally annexed Crimea**
* International community to prevent escalating conflict in the Syrian civil war, with Assad, accused of war crimes against the civilian population using poison gas - Obama failed to act
* China, Russia + the US refuse to accept the ICC - the **US enacted the American Service Member's Protection Act (2002) stating the US gov will use force to free servicemen if detained by the ICC**
36
Explain reasons why economic globalisation has reduced poverty
* **Developing countries attract investment by engaging in free trade** - allows the to industrialise
* Nation states can use their **comparative advantage to allow for expansion**
* Globalisation **reduces the cost of imports enabling the world's poorest to purchase subsitence + consumer goods cheaply**
* TNCs outsource employment to countries with **low labour costs = diversification in developing countries that export raw materials**
37
Explain reasons why economic globalisation has not reduced poverty
* Produced a 'race to the bottom' where governments **reduce costs limiting workers rights through commerical violence against workers**
* **Core states 'dump' cheap manufactered products on developing states so they remain in neo-colonial dependancy** (*Prebisch-Singer hypothesis*)
* Global capitalism is **volatile encouraging crises e.g 2008 global financial crash - instability threatens socioeconomic progress**
* **Job security is threatened** as **business move production to take advantage of lowest-cost** environments to produce in
38
Explain the key functions of the UN General Assembly
* UN body includes **representatives from all member countries** - each member **country has one vote**
* Assembly can issue recommendations but had **no power to force countries to act on them**
* On key issues a **2/3 majority is needed to make decisions** - only a recommendation
* **No legislative role** - **elects** with UNSC the **UN Secretary General + judges of ICJ**
* Annual sessions open with a **'General Debate**' in which each member country **delivers a statement on its perspective on world events**
* Most assembly business is dealt with 6 main committees - **GA approves or rejects the recommendations**
39
Explain the key functions of the ICJ
* ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN - established in June 1945 by the UN Charter
Court Functions:
1. Settle **legal disputes between states** using international law
2. State participation is voluntary but if **states agree to it they must comply with the Court's decision** - 193 countries
* The court has **15 judges that all serve 9 years** - they **don't represent their home country but are independant**
* They don't automatically hear cases, **both sides have to say they will abide by the ruiling**
* e.g In **2004** it ruled the **security fence around the West Bank was illegal - Israel ignored it**
40
Give examples of where the ICJ has been successful
* **2002** - **Nigeria + Cameroon** - dispute over who **owned an oil rich area**
* Territorial dispute between **Costa Rica + Nicaragua over the San Juan River** - ICJ ruled in favour of Costa Rica in 2018 - required **Nicaragua to compensate for environment damage**
* **2022** - **Uganda** ordered to **pay $325 million in reparations to the DRC** for damages caused by violations including **human right abuses + illegal exploitation of natural resources**
41
Explain why the ICJ is not successful with examples
* **Liberal principals conflict with state egotism + sovereignty** - states have to **agree to recognise the court's authority**
* ICJ can only listen to cases which are **submitted to it - cannot initate cases**
* **UNSC is supposed to enforce** the ruilings - the **P5 nations can veto it which prevents enforcement**
* 2016 - ICJ ruled in favour of the Philippines in the South China Sea based on the UNCLOS - **China refused to recognise the Court's ruiling + rejected its authority**
* March 2025, **Sudan filed a case against the UA**E at the ICJ, accusing it of **violating the Genocide Convention by financially and militarily supporting the Rapid Support Forces** (RSF) in carrying out **human rights abuses in Darfur**
* ICJ ruled it couldn’t proceed with the case as the **UAE doesn’t accept the jurisdiction of the ICJ**
42
Does the UNSC veto stop the UN from getting things done?
YES
* Permanent members are too powerful + can **veto anything threatning their national interests** e.g there has been **no meaningful action from Syria**
* Powerful permanent members can misbehave + **veto action against them e.g Russia in Crimea**
* UNSC is powerless to **stop countries acting alone e.g US war in Iraq**
NO
* UNSC has achieved a lot + **passed many resolutions**
* Completed **peacekeeping missions** around the world (e.g **Libya 2011**) + imposed **sanctions on nations posing a risk to international security**
* Powerful states veto has meant **major powers have stayed members of the UN**
43
Explain the key problems with global governance
1. International laws are largely unforceable - international laws are often optional + require **states to sign up to agree to them - states can change their mind + withdraw**
2. Lack of international law enforcement - even when states agree to international law there are **few ways of it to be enforced or hold them to account**
3. States are principal actors - individual states make or break global government initatives they **choose when to opt out of agreement** e.g **USA under Trump withdrew from the Paris Climate Accords**
44
Explain how different types of states participate in global governance and the power they have
* *Rogue States* - **illegitimate governments exceeding their powers in North Korea** - the states have **no desire to be part of global government** so are not influenced or persuaded by any system of global governance
* *Failed states* - states that **aren't fully in control of the internal government such as Somalia or Mali** - they are rarely effective participants in global goverance as they have **no authority over their own populations** e.g groups like the **Taliban in Afghanistan**or ISIS in Syria often try to take over these failed states
* *Powerful states* - states can **pick and choose which global agreements they are part of** + simply ignore any international pressure e.g **Russia's actions in Ukraine has triggered lots of international pressure but it has been ignored** + getting the USA to sign the Kyoto protocol
45
Explain how hyper-globalists/optimists view globalisation
Hyper-globalism
* Local cultures are being eroded because of the expansion of international capitalism + the **emergence of a homogenous global culture**
* Friedman argues the global adoption of neoliberal economic policies; provides the **business-friendly environment** allowing wealth to be generated which should **trickle down to everyone**
* Friedman argues countries have the *'golden straight jacket'* that countries should fit to achieve success; **deregulation, fewer protections for workers, privatisation + cutting taxes**
* Neoliberalism has restricted the power of nation-states e.g makes **trade easier, free movement of goods, more jobs, cheaper products**
46
Explain how globalisation sceptics view globalisation
Globalisation Sceptics
* Sceptics argue that globalisation is not a new process but an **ongoing form of internationalisation**
* They believe the **nation state is growing** and still the most powerful actors; borders are effective
* Sceptics argue organisations like the **UN are built upon nation states acting as the instruments**
* **Martell** argues the future of world politics will be related to **nation states and their implementation**
* **Wallenstein** argues that the capitalist world system is constituted by nation states so **reject the idea of global governance** also citing the rise of **anti-globalist movements**
47
Explain how Transformationalists view globalisation
Transformationalists
* Argue the **impact of globaliation has been exaggerated** + believe globalisation can be reversed or controlled where it is negative
* They argue the **flow of culture is a two-way exchange in which Western cutlure is also influence from cultures** in the developing world and vice-versa
* **Local cultures aren't simply swallowed up by western cultures** in which **developing countries select aspects of western culture + adapt** them to particular needs a process called **glocalisation'**
* They argue it's created a new class of **global consumers which a greater range of choice** from which they can construct a hybridised global identity
* **Kassim** argues the **'Arab Spring'** movement **succeeded in removing totalitarian dicatators** in Tunisa + Egpyt because of the information spread through **Facebook to bypass government censorship**
* Giddens argues a consequence of **detraditionalisation where people question traditional beliefs** about religion, marriage + gender roles **making cultures less stable**
48
Give examples to show whether Americanisation or Globalisation is more widespread
Americanisation:
* The 10 most profitable companies in the world are all US-led e.g **Apple, Google, Meta, Amazon, Tesla**. Combined they are worth **over 2 trillion dollars**
* The US is the world's dominant economy with **25% share of global GDP**
* US global troop deployments are unparalleled further extending US interests e.g **130,000 US troops are stationed in the world**
Globalisation:
* **China has become the biggest global investor** in other countries - the establishment of the **Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank** to challenge the dominance of the World Bank
* The estbalishment of the **African Union + the AfCFTA (free trade region** etc) **challenges other supranational bodies like the EU**
49
Explain arguments for why the UNSC should be reformed
* UNSC's composition reflect a view that the **major powers haven't changed since 1945** and **doesn't reflect current geopolitical** realities e.g **Brazil, Germany, Japan + India**
* UNSC's ability to function depends on alignment across the P5
* The **veto power of the P5** can block actions that **go against their national interests** e.g **Russia vetoing actions on Ukraine**
50
Explain arguments for why the UNSC should not reformed
* If more states had the veto power it would **increase the likelihood of resoultions being vetoed - the UNSC would be unable to act**
* UNSC was successfully reformed in 1965 when they amount of **non-permanent members increased from 6 to 10**
* It would be **impossible for new members to agree to the new permanent members** as they would be able to veto any prospective new members + it would **upset the balance of power in the region**
Non-Permanent Members
* **African Group: 3 member**
* **Asia-Pacific Group: 2 members**
* **Eastern European Group: 1 member**
* **Latin American and Caribbean Group: 2 members**
* **Western European and Others Group: 2 members**
* One of the five African/Asian seats is an **Arab country, alternating between the two groups**
51
Explain arguments for options for reforms to the UNSC
* Places like **South America or Africa should be given more representation through permanent membership** being given to **Brazil, South Africa or Nigeria as they're underrepresented**
* Include **new permanent members but limit their powers to not having a veto** - reducing the chance of a statlemate
* **Increase** the number of **non-permanent members** or **increasing the length of time they sit on the UNSC** to increase the influence of emerging powers
52
Explain some of the UN's work on climate change and the solutions and assessment they have worked on
Solutions
* Created the **Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change**
* Created the **Kyoto Protocol to limit greenhouse gases**
* Held the Paris Summit in 2015 + created the **UN Framework Convention on Climate Change**
Assessment
* The **US + Canada aren't signed up to the Kyoto Protocol** prioritising economic development over environmental concerns
* **Canada left in 2020 because otherwise they were facing $14 billion fine** - damaging their economy
* 196 countries agreed at the Paris Summit to **limit global warming to below 2 degrees**
* The **US are likely to withdraw from the Paris Agreement** during the next Trump prediency
53
Explain some of the UN's work on nuclear weapons and the solutions and assessment they have worked on
Solutions
* **Treaty of the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons**
* UN General Assesmbly has a dedicated Disarmament Commission
* **UN Office for Disarmament Affairs**
Assessment
* **Five permanent members of the UNSC haved signed NPT**
* They agree to **not share nuclear technology**
* Four UN member states have **not signed the treaty including India and Pakistan**
54
Explain the concept of 'voluntary restraint' and why G4 members want to be part of the UNSC
* **Permammnent members wouldn't** be allowed to use the **'veto' power with mass atrocities** as a method of **restriciting their power**
* **G4 (Brazil, Japan, India + Germany)** want **permanent membership** as they believe they are key geopolitical countries
55
Explain what countries on the UNSC use the veto power the most and why
* **Russia prevented Syria facing financial sanctions** + referring it to the ICC for it's actions as well as **action related to it's invasion into Ukraine**
* **China** used it to **fail to recogise the state of Taiwan as a country**
* **US uses it veto powers against action to move their embassy out of Jerusalem** + back **Israeli settlements from being seen as illegal**
56
What were global poverty levels in 1990 and 2024?
* Global poverty levels
* 1990 - 37.1%
* **2024 - 8.5%**
57
Explain modernisation theory
* **Modernisation theory** = the 'pre-conditions for take-off' involes the production of capital + technology from the West + **investment by Western companies and government aid**
* Leads to **more exporting of manufactered goods to the West** as the country takes its place in the international trading system
58
Explain dependancy theory and world systems theory
* Dependancy theory = **Resources flow** from the periphery (e.g **poor underdeveloped countries with cheaper labour costs**) to the wealthy Western countries
* World Systems theory = the **entire world system maintains poverty** - **capitalists exploit people in both core countries + semi-periphery** countries (e.g decling economically + developing economically)
59
Explain how colonisation has caused poverty
* **MNCs based in Global North exploit states** in the **Global South for natural resources + cheap labour** - **profits are just returned to the North**
* In the colonial period contribute to **global poverty as infrastructure was built** which is used today e.g **roads, railways, bridges, dams**
60
Explain how dependancy theory causes poverty
* Colonialism has meant that **core countries keep poorer ones in a state of dependancy** + underdevelopment to **increase their own economic growth**
* Global capitalism keeps developing countries in a state of dependancy because the **Global North exploit the labour + raw materials of the Global South** - they become **dependant on the North for capital + investment**
* e.g **COP29 poorer states to receive £300 billion from 2025-2035**, when the old deal was **£100 billion up to 2025**)
* **Underdevelopment in a global context** rather than specific interactions between individual nation-states
61
Explain how the North-South divide has caused global poverty
* Core nations such as the **US + EU block less-developed nations** to preserve the status quo for **protectionist reasons** (e.g **Trump refused to work with the African Union**)
* North created sustained wealth through **industrialisation + manufactering contrasts with agricultural exports in the South**
* Global North created intitutions within the **Bretton Woods for their own benefit** + dominate the decision maKing in those institutions e.g the **ICC meant to only focus on African countries**
* **China** (part of the Global South) has seen a **dramatic increase in economic growth** + is projected to be the world's largest economy 2030 - **invests in many Global South states e.g Sub-Saharan Africa**
* Global South is **closing the divide through successful industrialisation of the Newly Industrialised Countries** e.g *Brazil, Malaysia + the Philippines*
* **Larger role of developing states in the G20** - AU attended G20 in 2024
62
Explain the NPT and its impact
* Non-proliferation Treaty - **prevents the spread of nuclear weapons** + weapons technology to promote cooperation of nuclear disarmament
* The treaty represents the **binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament** - from 1970
* **191 states** have joined the treaty including the 5 nuclear weapon states
63
Explain, using examples, how the ICC has been successful
ICC
* **2016** - **Bemba** - VP of Congo sentenced to 18 years for using **sexual violence as a weapon of war**
* 2024 - **Arrest warrents for Netanyahu + Putin**
* 2025 - Arrest warrents for the **Taliban - persecution of women**
* *March 2025*, **former Philippine President Duterte was arrested in Manilla** and transferred to The Hague
* The charges relate to his administration’s **brutal ‘War on Drugs’** during which thousands of **alleged drug dealers and users were killed without trial between 2016 and 2019**
* Duterte had **withdrawn the Philippines from the Rome Statute as President in 2019**, the *ICC still has jurisdiction over crimes committed by Duterte when the Philippines was still a member state* and the current **President of the Philippines cooperating with the ICC**
64
Explain, using examples, why the ICC is not successful
* Only **125 nations** have signed up to it - **America, Russia, China + India not part** of it (**70% of the world's population outside ICC jursidiction**)
* States **do not have to co-operate with its ruilings** + has little power to enforce them
* Only **convicted African nations - AU has urged members not to co-operate/**consider leaving - weakens it powers further
* **2016** - **Burundi, South Africa + Namibia announced they were leaving**
65
Explain why NATO's role in the world is still important
* NATO v Russia = example of a *'security dilemma'*
* The **EU needs NATO's military capability + NATO needs the EU's political expertise**
* E.g co-operated on their **action against piracy on the Somalian coast**
* NATO defends against Russian aggression - especially for **newer NATO members e.g Sweden, Finland etc + Ukraine and Georgia as aspiring members to protect them against dictatorships**
* NATO in the baltic states - expanded its military presence in the area e.g **European Response force has grown from 13,000 to 40,000 troops + a specialist spearhead force of 5000**
66
Is the NATO alliance breaking down
* US politicans have become isolationist characters - **USA funds are now only 16% of the annual budget** (**not 70%**) - Europe is now doing more than ever
* 2024 - **23 out of 32 members will reach 2% GDP target**
* 2024 - **Poland is the top spender - 4.1% of it GDP**
67
Give examples of when NATO has provided humanitarian aid across the world
* **No 'fly zone' + air strikes** on Colonel **Gaddafi's regime in Libya**
* **Counter piracy operations in Somalia** to protect **international shipping**
68
Explain how treaties haven't prevented the spread of nuclear weapons
* **India, Pakistan + North Korea - haven't signed the NPT**
* The **USA + Russia still own 90% of the worlds nuclear weapons**
* France, UK + USA all improve exisiting weapons - **2016 £31 billion on renewing Trident**
* E.g Iran's intent to devleop nuclear weapons - **2015 Iranian Nuclear Deal - committed to halting its nuclear weapons programme ith regular checks** - in return **UNSC + EU stopped economic sanctions crippling the economcy** - **Trump broke the deal**
69
Explain the key functions of the IMF
* *Surveillance* - reviews policies from different countries + **advises** its 189 member states on the best financial decisions which **foster economic stability + improve living conditions**
* *Lending* - when **members suffer debt crisis/economic instability they can request IMF financial assistance**
* *Capacity building* - **IMF experts train members on managing their economy** e.g how to have fair tax systems
70
Explain whether or not the IMF is fair and democratic
* IMF is **undemocratic** because voting power + decision making is weighted + is based on **how much member states chose to pay**
* **Most economically powerful states pay the most to the IMF** + in return are allocate more decision making power
* Vote share - **China + Japan (6%)**, France + UK (4%), **USA (16%)**
71
Explain what the IMP SAPs involve
* States is financial crises must agree to SAP conditions to receive the help - Western ideology
* **Cutting wasteful public spending + raising taxes** to eliminate a budget deficit
* Selling government owned assests for **private ownership**
* **Increasing taxes by cutting public services**
* Cutting public sector wages
72
Explain reasons why SAPs are ineffective
* Excessive demands on states - **lessens sovereignty**
* Western nations have a great deal of power - **imposes Western economic management ideals**
* Economic reforms = increase in corporate profits e.g rich get richer
* **Developing countries have increased prosperity but increases in inequality** - do SAPs disproportionately benefit the rich?
73
Explain how the IMF's SAP programme worked in Pakisatan
Pakistan - **increased amount of taxes to ease government debt** - in 2009 it was estimated the 3.2 million Pakistanis who owned multiple properties + bank accounts didn't pay tax
* **Privatised the national airline + 67 state owned companies**
* Pakisatan still **received several loans despite not making progress on privatisation**
* IMF assessed **tax revenues as 'below potential'**
74
Recent IMF examples of how they are using SAPs
Argentina’s $20 Billion Bailout Package:
* April 2025, the **IMF approved a $20 billion** 48-month bailout package for Argentina - due to risk of financial crisis, due to **limited foreign currency reserves**
* IMF pushes neoliberal economic policies on countries in difficult financial situations, whilst also pushing them into **further debt** - second IMF bailout in 10 years - **$57 billion bailout in 2018**
* President Javier **Milei had implemented a strict austerity agenda**
* Tackling climate change is only a secondary priority of the IMF, as **Milei won the Presidency on a platform of climate denial**
75
What are the two key institutions of the World Bank
1. **International Bank for Reconstruction + Development** - provides **loans to middle-income countries** - some of the loans are SAPs
2. **International Development Association** - provides **loans to the poorest countries - low/zero interest**
76
Explain how the World Bank is democratic
* World Bank agrees to **new loans, programmes, budgets - put to a member vote**
* States have to be **unamiously accepted by a vote by other member states to join** - voting power linked to the amount of funds which they all contribute
77
Examples of the World Banks' growing impact
* In **2021 - $63 billion of low interest loans**
* Funded 275 projects
* Works with other institutions e.g **Arab League to reduce unemployment in Arab nations**
78
Explain how the World Bank is effective
1. Moved **away from SAPs to human development**
2. **Direct grants over loans to poorer nations - prevents them from going into debt**
3. By **2030** wants to **reduce the people living in absolute poverty to 3%** + boost income growth in every country in the bottom 40%
4. Considers the impact of the loans e.g environmentally
5. Provides **loans for e.g improving public health, combatting water security** reducing conflict, increasing trade, improving financial systems
79
Explain why the World Bank is ineffective
1. Imbalance of voting powers is outdated for the globalised world - **BRIC countries have less than a 1/4 of the voting power of the USA**
2. World Bank **contributions are miniscule compared to private investment in China ($69 billion)** compared to the **World Banks ($42.6 billion)** - critics argue it should focus on **poor nations which are conflict ridden + so don't recieve private investment**
3. Encourgaes **poor countries to produce cash crops** e.g cocoa + coffee - leaves them **vulnerable to large companies which control the makets**
4. **Growing cash crops reduces the amount of land to grow domestic food to feed the population**- cycle of poverty
5. Good democratic governance is not a condition of the loands - can go to corrupt governments
6. Encourages **unsustainable development - grows crops for exports**
80
Explain how the WTO is set up and its key policy values
* 166 member countries - 97% of all world trade
* General Agreement on Tarrifs and Trade 1947 - **45,000 tariff removals were agreed impacting $10 billion worth of trade**
* **Non-discriminatory** - if states have a **trade deal with one country the other must be offered it** - openess with trade
* Emphasise free trade, **lowering import bans or quotas**
* Increased competition with **states not interfering to give themselves an unfair advantage**
81
Explain the key policies of the WTO and where they have been successful
* Commitment to involving less-developed countries so they can become full participant in international trade
* **Protectionist tarrifs** have fallen steadily + **avergae less than 5% in industrial countries**
* **Decision occur through a consensus only** - protects **developing countries - 2/3 of members**
* Baesd on comparative advantage - **states prosper by using assests** (human, industrial, financial) to **produce what they can best - then trade those good for ones other countries produce best**
82
Explain the negatives of the WTO
* Principle of **free trade has increased inequality** industrialised countries **gain access to the markets of developing states without the prospect of foreign compeitition**
* Trade become global needs rather than local needs + places **profit over the protection of the environment or worker's rights**
* **Common Agricultural Policy use quotas + tariffs to block imports of foreign food** while **subsidising exports to undermine the livelihood of farmer in competitor countries**
e.g **EU/USA with developng countries such as China, Brazil** + India especially **agricultural protectionism**
83
Example of the WTO's limitations due to state sovereignty
* India’s Digital Trade Tariffs - Example Of The Failure Of The WTO To Uphold State Sovereignty:
In late 2023, the **WTO's Dispute Settlement Body** (DSB) ruled that **India’s tariffs on imported digital services**, **violated the WTO’s free trade rules**
* These **tariffs had been challenged by the EU**, which argued they **unfairly restricted access to India’s digital market**
* However, India failed to comply with the ruling and **hasn’t removed the tariffs**. India claimed that the tariffs were **necessary to protect national sovereignty + their domestic tech industry**
India **appealed the decision to the WTO’s Appellate Body** in 2024, which they knew **isn't functioning**
* **Appellate Body** isn’t currently working due to **gridlock and the U.S. blocking appointments**
84
Explain what the G7 is and its role
* G7 - 7 most successful economies - but **outdated doesn't include the BRIC countries**
* G7 has **no formal rules**, can invite any states, IGOs or NGos to meetings
* No budget or secretariat
* Decisions are **non-binding - has flexibility but lacks accountability**
* Aid to Ukraine - 2023/2024 + G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism + **Minsk Protocol (agreement to brind the end of the Ukraine war)**
85
Explain what the G20 is and what its role is
* G20 includes the 20 most successful economies - includes many of the **world's emerging powers + culturally diverse e.g China, Saudi Arabia, Korea**
* Together it represents **nearly 2/3 of the world's population +3/4 of all world trade**
* Invites **IGOs e.g AU, ASEAN with non-G20 states e.g Thailand, Singapore**
* Summits **end with a 'communique' agreed by every state** - **watered down to please all of the members**
* **Little accountability** for decisions made
* Forum for conflict resolution - due to the diversity of states within the G20
86
Explain the R2P Principle
* **Responsibility to Protect** asserts that sovereign states bear the **main responsibility for protecting their citizens against genocide, war crimes** etc - when a state **cannot do this the international community has a duty to intervene** + protect the population by the **UNSC, UNGA, Regional Organisations**
87
Explain why the UNSC exercises the R2P the most
UNSC
* Has the most legitmacy + effectiveness - most power within international law
* Political legitmacy because **10 non-permanent members from every region** - backing of the whole international community
* P5 can also **mobilise the financial, bureaucratic and military resources**
* Major concern - P5 may act to protect their own interests e.g between **1911-2014 the UNSC authorised 60 UN pecekeeping missions** mainly in **Somalia + Bosina** - only **2 have been authorised since because of deteriorating relations between the US + Russia**
88
Explain why the UNGA exercises the R2P the most
UNGA
* Humanitarian interventions carried out with the UNGA's approval have some legal basis in exercising this duty if the UNSC fails
* UNGA is the most representative organ it gives significant political legitmacy to humanitarian interventions
* **Absence of veto power gives more timely action**
* Uniting for Peace procedure requires that **resolutions have a 2/3 majority**
* **UNGA resolutions lack the legal force of the UNSC**
89
Examples of regional organisations humanitarian operations
Regional Organisations
* **EU** - EUMAM Ukraine provides **training for the armed services of Ukraine**
* **NATO** - 2023 support for **Turkey delivering temporary shelters** post the earthquake
* NATO - **4500 Allied troops in Kosovo to maintain humanitarian security**
* **AU** - Mission in Ethiopia which has led the **disarmament of Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) combatants, humanitarian access**
90
Explain the role of the AIB and why its powerful
* **Asian Infrastrucutre Bank** - challenges the dominance of the IMF + World Bank
* **110 members** - 46 in Asia, 26 in Europe + 22 in Africa
* **China, India, Germany, South Korea, Australia, France, Indonesia, UK, Saudi Arabia** - have the **most voting powers** in order
* **Philippines**: **Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge** - funded by the AIB - 2024
* **Bangladesh**: **Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Development Project** - funded by the AIB - 2020
91
Explain what realist thinkers think about bipolarity between U.S + China
* **Kupchan** argues that the **emerging international order resembles** that of the Cold War
* He argues that the U.S + China are engaging in an **intense security competition but the threat of MAD will deter both sides** - **security dilema**
* **Alison** coined the term **'Thucydides Trap'** to describe the tendency for **new great powers + existing hegemons** to become extremely **suspicious** of the other
* Increasing animosity between China + U.S - **Taiwan, freedom of navigation, trade + human rights**
92
Explain how realists view the U.S's state capabilities
* U.S and allies **fighting terrorism + promoting liberal democracy**
* e.g Afghanistan which turned into a **disatrous 'forever war'** + when they left it led to the **Taliban taking control + 13 American military personel dead**
* **Post 9/11 conflicts in the Middle East cost the U.S Treasury $8 trillion** + the **deaths of 1 million people**
* **U.S global GDP has fallen from 20% to 15%**
* **Brooks + Wohlforth** are realists who argue that **American military spending** is still **higher than the next 10 countries combined**
* **American military** spending as a percentage of **GDP** has only **slightly fallen from 46% in 1990 to 40% in 2020**
* U.S extends its alliances (NATO, AUKUS) whilist **China** has only **one offical security ally in North Korea**
93
Explain how India is becoming a global power
* **India's annual military** spending has skyroketed from around **£11 billion in 1990 to $81 billion in 2022**
* India is the 4th biggest spender on **defence behind the U.S, China + Russia**
* Strong economic growth has allowed India to improve its military
* India wants to have a **more autonomous foreign policy**
* India is part of the **Quadrilateral Security Dialouge - U.S, UK + Australia** but still maintains **close ties with Moscow** (**increased oil exports from Russia** since invasion in Ukraine which it has not condemned) + a member of the **Shaghai Cooperation Organisation**
* India's share of **global GDP has risen from 4% to nearly 8%**
94
Explain Mearsheimer's views on how the world has moved towards multipolarity
* Mearsheimer argues that **NATO's expansion into Eastern Europe** in which the U.S solidifed hegemony which **sped up the return of mulipolarity because other countries felt threatened**
* Exemplified by **Russia's invasion of Georgia in 2008, Crimea in 2014 + Ukraine in 2022**
* **Mearsheimer** **blames Russia's aggression** on the West's **refusal to take Moscow's 'security concerns'** during the unipolar era
* **Unipolar** argument rests on the view that **mulipolarity/bipolarity requires great powers** in international system to have roughly **equal capabilities/influence on geopolitics**
95
Explain the key strengths of the G7
Strengths
* **Informality** allows its **members to focus on any issues** + respond to major issues
* **Small number of states** means that there is **little gridlock in decisions**
* **Little impact on state sovereignty**
* Makes key interventions - **$20 billion support for Ukraine + pressure on Russia**
96
Explain the key weaknesses of the G7
Weaknesses
* **Anti-globalisation** protesters criticise the G7 for its apparent **inability to deal with poverty, climate change** etc
* **Little accountability for states commitments** due to the informality
* Richest countries - **promote Western neo-liberal ideas** only
* Include other significant nations - the 'outreach five' (**Brazil, China, India, Mexico + South Africa**)
* Meet **less frequently**
* Outdated vision of the world's economic powers e.g **China second greatest economic power**
* States all agree with each other - **expulsion of Russia** shows how they **failed to persuade Russia to pursue a different course**
97
Explain, using examples, how the ECHR has been successful
* **90% compliance with its rulings** - provides Europe with a moral code
* Successfuly **condemned human right abuses in Russia (2005)**
* Ruled that Bosnina constitution discriminated against Jews (2005)
**Stopped Abu Qatada from being deported from the UK** (2015)
* **Prevented Rwanda scheme from occuring in the UK** - said **Rwanda wasn't a safe country**
98
Explain, using examples, how the ECHR has been unsuccessful
* If a **state refuses to abide by the court it has no coercive power**
* **UK defied** the court by **not accepting that prisoners should receive the vote** + life imprisonment despite the court labelling it a inhumane
* **2016 ECHR ruled the UK government 'Investigatory Power Act' was illegal** - **Parliament have sovereignty** so ignored the ruiling
* 2015 - Russia made Rusian law take precedence over the ECHR
99
Explain the effectiveness of the Rwanda UN Tribunal
Rwanda UN Tribunal
* 1997 - Genocide which **killed 800,000 of the ethnic group called Tutsis**
* Tribunal **convicted 61 individuals** - including the **former PM** who was the **first head of state to be imprisoned for genocide**
* Made a law stating that **rape was a part of genocide + criminal**
100
Explain the effectiveness of the Sierra Leone UN Tribunal
Sierra Leone UN Tribunal
* 2002 - investigation into crimes during th civil war
* **President Taylor supported criminal gangs** e.g 'Westside Boys' who murdered many + hacked off limbs - by **1999 - 50,000 had already died**
* Taylor was **sentenced to 50 years imprisonment** - first **head of state convicted for war crimes**
* **Imprisoned 15 others** as well
101
Explain the limitations of UN Tribunals
* **Only heard from one side** e.g Tokyo trials only heard by the USA
* Serbs criticse the Yugoslavian tribunal for **only hearing crimes committed by Serbs** + **ignoring those against them** - shows **court bias** + intensified ethnic tension
* Rwadan tribunal has been criticised for only investigating crimes against the Tutsis + but the **Hutus experienced crimes agaisnt them as well**
* President **Taylor** (Sierra Leone) was imprisoned initally in the Hauge now in the **UK - reinforces idea that Africa canot deliver justice itself**
102
Explain the further limitations of UN Tribunals
* Saddam **Hussein wasn't tired by an international court instead in Iraq** - meant he was **eligible for the death penalty** - insisted by the **US** - Iraq tribunal only had to be **'satisfied' of his guilt not beyond resonable doubt**
* UN Tribunals **only held in 'some' circumstances** - **isn't a clear stand against human rights abuse**
* UN **P5 can veto a UN Tribunal** - **Putin vetoed a tribunal for the shooting down** on Malaysian flight **283 by Russina rebels**
103
How have the USA and UK been accused of hypocrisy in their promotion of liberal democracy and human rights
USA advocates for liberal democratic ideals but has faced criticism for its own human rights record:
* **Military** Interventions: The **invasions of Afghanistan post-9/11 and Iraq** in 2003 were conducted without **explicit UN Security Council authorisation**
* **Sanctions on the ICC**: **Asset freezes and travel bans**, in response to the court's investigations into **alleged actions by U.S. personnel + Israel**
United States: In March 2025, the **U.S. expedited approximately $4 billion in military aid to Israel** and **£20 billion** since October 7th
United Kingdom: Since 2015, the UK has licensed at least **£489 million worth of military exports to Israel**
104
How does national self-interest influence countries' actions in international bodies
* **Saudi Arabia** reportedly secured its **position on the UNHRC** by providing funding for **anti-terrorism initiatives to Togo**
* Trump authorised **sanctions against ICC officials**, including **asset freezes and travel bans**
* The **U.S. consistently defends Israel at the UNSC**, influenced by strategic interests, including access to key natural resources in the region.
105
What factors contribute to the selectivity of humanitarian interventions by Western countries?
* **Libya**: The NATO intervention against President Gaddafi was legitimized by UN Resolution 1973, which called for an **immediate ceasefire and the protection of civilians**.
* *Zimbabwe*: Despite **accusations of human rights abuses by President Mugabe**, the West refrained from intervening, partly due to concerns about legitimacy and potential **backlash from the African Union, China, and Russia**, who might view such actions as neo-colonialism.
*Syria*: President Assad maintained claims to legitimacy through a 2012 referendum and a 2014 presidential election, both yielding around **90% support**. His **backing by Russia and China deterred Western intervention**, despite the ongoing humanitarian crisis.
* Domestic Constraints: In 2013, the **UK Parliament rejected Prime Minister David Cameron's** proposal for **military airstrikes in Syria** following the use of **chemical weapons**, leading to **U.S. reluctance to act unilaterally**
* *Belarus*: Election Controversy: President **Lukashenko secured 87.5% of the vote in the 2025 elections**, amid allegations of electoral fraud. The **lack of international consensus** and has hindered a unified response.
106
What are the three main reasons for the decline in humanitarian interventions in the past 15 years?
* **Rise of China & Russia** – Both **oppose interventions that violate state sovereignt**y and use their UNSC vetoes to block resolutions (e.g., Syria).
* Western hypocrisy & selective interventionism – **Failure to hold allies accountable** (U.S. supports Saudi Arabia despite Yemen war crimes - conducting **airstrikes** that have **indiscriminately targeted civilian areas killing 6000** civilians)
* U.S. isolationism – Shift away from intervention under Obama - campaigned on **reducing military interventions** but continued **drone strikes (Pakistan, Yemen, Somalia)**, Trump’s “America First” policy - **withdrew from WHO, Paris Climate Agreement + Iranian Nuclear Deal**+ and Biden’s **2021 Afghanistan withdrawal**
107
How have China and Russia used their power to block humanitarian interventions?
* Since 2011, **Russia has vetoed at least 17 UNSC resolutions on Syria**, protecting Bashar al-Assad **despite chemical weapon attacks**
* **China has shielded Myanmar** from accountability **over the Rohingya genocide (2017)** and watered down resolutions on Ukraine (2022)
108
What recent human rights abuses have occurred in Sudan?
* April 2023 – Sudanese Armed Forces vs. Rapid Support Forces (RSF) battle for control
* Reports of **mass killings, sexual violence, ethnic cleansing**
* **Over 10 million displaced, with famine conditions** worsening
109
Why is the selective use of humanitarian interventions controversial?
* Western-led interventions often target **weaker states but ignore allies' human rights abuses**. **No intervention** in cases like **Saudi Arabia or Israel** despite rights violations
* They often **lack post-war planning, leading to power vacuums** - **Iraq (rise of ISIS), Libya (civil war after Gaddafi’s fall)**
110
How do NGOs like Amnesty International & Human Rights Watch and foundations promote human rights?
* Amnesty’s ongoing reports on forced labor in Xinjiang have drawn international attention and led to sanctions from the European Union and United States against Chinese officials
* **Human Righht Watch work on Rohingya abuses in Myanmar** played a key role in the **ICJ taking up the genocide case against Myanmar**
* In **2021, FIDH’s** (International Federation for Human Rights) lobbying efforts contributed to the **EU’s adoption of the Global Human Rights Sanctions Regime**, allowing the EU to impose sanctions on human rights violators
* **Ford Foundation has given $1 billion** in grants for initiatives on civil rights. Funding in **Latin America has supported indigenous rights in the Amazon** - empowered local communities to combat land grabs + **environmental exploitation**
111
China is a Superpower - Military
Military
* **China has the second largest military** behind the US - its presence in the South China Sea reinforce its **claims to Taiwan + fishing rights**
* China has **over 2.3 million in active service** with additional
* China has recently **increased its military spending by 7%** in 2025
* Neo-realists argue military powers the safest course is to become the **hegemon through military** + economy through the ‘zero-sum game’
* **PLA** has undergone rapid **modernisation** investing in advanced weaponry - **hypersonic missiles**
* China has participated in international peacekeeping missions + established its **first overseas military base in Djibouti**
* China has strengthened military ties with nations like Russia, Iran + North Korea forming alliances that **challenge the U.S.-led global order** - coalition called **CRINK** facilitates the exchange of **goods, arms + diplomatic support**
112
China is NOT a Superpower - Military
Military
* **US** accounts for **37% of global military spending** + **spends more than 4x what China** does
* China's assertive military actions in the South China Sea - constructed **artificial islands** equipped with **military installations in disputed areas of the SCS** + conducted **military exercises near Taiwan**
* China's military technology still relies on certain foreign components and technologies which have been restricted - U.S. has **imposed export controls targeting Chinese entities** involved in military applications. In **December 2024, over 70 Chinese companies** were added to the **U.S. export blacklist, restricting access** to technologies vital for **developing AI chips + hypersonic weapons**
* PLA faces internal challenges - **corruption** (**removal of at least 15 high-ranking military** officers + former Defence Minister) which may impede its operational effectiveness
113
China is a Superpower - Economic
Economic
* China boasts the **world's second-largest economy** by nominal GDP - **18% of the global** economy
* China's **trade surplus** rose to **$1trillion - 2024**
* China has prioritised technological self-reliance, investing in artificial intelligence
* **Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership** is a **free trade** agreement between **China and 14 Asia-Pacific** nations (including Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand)
* Covering approximately **30% of the world's population** + GDP, RCEP aims to reduce tariffs
* **China-EU** Comprehensive Agreement on Investment - focuses on providing **mutual market access + creating a balanced investment** environment
* Made in China 2025: Launched to transition China from a **manufacturing hub** to a leader in **high-tech industries** - **DeepSeek** AI
* **Three-Year Action Plan for AI Standardisation** (2024-2027): China as a global leader in AI by developing **generative AI**
* Produce **100,000 industrial robots annually**
* Initiated projects to establish **50 computing hubs by 2025**
* China has been the **world's largest exporter since 2010** and became the largest trading partner for over 120 countries by 2020
* China's GDP is **over double that of its fellow BRIC members**
114
China is NOT a Superpower - Economic
Economic
* China’s average income (GDP) is **$3,738** and America’s is **$48,153**
* China remains a poor country, with a **standard of living only one-fifth of America’s**
* Even by **2030**, when the **Chinese economy could be twice the size of America’s**, its **standard of living will only be a little over half** that of the **average American**
* China's **unemployment** rate stands at approximately **5.1%** v **4.0%** in the US - US has had a **50-month streak of job** growth
* Despite setting a **5% GDP growth target for 2025**, China's economy faces challenges such as an a**ging population, income inequality** + a **debt-laden property sector** - hinder sustained growth
* Ongoing trade disputes, with the United States, have led to **tariffs + restrictions - 100% on Chinese electric vehicles, 15% on clothes + shoes** impacting **China's export-driven economy** - 1/5 of China's whole earning = exports
* Rapid industrialisation has resulted in significant environmental degradation - posing challenges to sustainable development + public health
* Oil imports to China are 4.3% + the US has a rate of 9.6% - China still remains a weak competition against the US
* **Trade** between the **U.S + China totalled $758.4 billion in 2022** meaning **conflict is hugely detrimental to both countries economies**
115
China is a Superpower - Political
Political
* China's centralised political system enables swift decision-making facilitating large-scale initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) and rapid **infrastructure development**
* BRI - **invested $679 billion in infrastructure** (e.g railways + energy)
* China **investment in BRICS increased by 31% in 2024** v 2024
* China Investment Development Agency - **$186.2 million** investment globally
* **$4.5 billion project to build a hydropower** plant - will be **50% of Angloa's electricity**
* **July 2024, China** hosted reconciliation talks between **14 Palestinian factions**, culminating in the **Beijing Declaration** - which aimed to unify Palestinian voices
* **March 2023**, China **brokered negotiations between Saudi Arabia and Iran**, leading to the restoration of diplomatic relations after years of tension
* In **January 2025, China** facilitated a **ceasefire between Myanmar's military government + the ethnic armed** group Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army - to stabilise conflict-ridden northeastern region bordering China
* China has contributed **peacekeeping troops to the United Nations mission in Mali**
116
China is NOT a Superpower - Political
Political
* **October 2023** - **51 UN member countries** issued a joint declaration **condemning China's actions against Uyghurs**
* March **2021**, the **United States, European Union, UK + Canada** imposed coordinated **sanctions on Chinese officials** for human rights abuses in Xinjiang:
* They all **imposed asset freezes + travel bans** on four senior Chinese officials
* **China-India** relationship is marked by border disputes + an **asymmetric economic relationship, with a trade deficit exceeding $100 billion** in China's favor
* **Territorial disputes over islands** + maritime rights have strained China-Japan relations. The **growing presence of Chinese naval and air forces near Japanese territory** has raised security concerns
* **CGTN + Xinhua** have established bureaus worldwide, including in major Western cities, aiming to provide alternatives to Western media
