Core research methods concepts

Question 1

Qualitative research

Answer 1

Methods like participant observation which give results about individuals lives, this produces in depth data- The data consists of textual information and is generally high in validity- Subjective

Question 2

Quantitative research

Answer 2

Methods like surveys and structured interviews that give results that can be easily be put into a table, this gives large scale data- the data is generally high in reliability

Question 3

Validity

Answer 3

Refers to the extent to which research methods show a true and honest insight into the social reality. Generally qualitative methods are high in validity as the ppts are given a chance to give a deeper insight into their lives through open questions.

Question 4

Reliability

Answer 4

Refers to the extent to which a piece of research is scientific and therefore replicable meaning that if another researcher were to adopt the method they would get the same or similar results each time.
Quantitative methods are high in reliability as the data collected if numerical, logical, scientific and objective meaning that it is free from bias and participant emotions.

Question 5

Representativeness

Answer 5

Refers to the extent to which the sample selected is a fair reflecting of the target population- Reflects the characteristics of the group investigated. (most research is fairly representative)

Question 6

Generalisability

Answer 6

Refers to the ability to make claims about the wider target population from the research findings. Generalisable to all people who hold the characteristic of the group being researched. For research to be truly generalised it should be researching more than a thousand of people.

Question 7

What are the 4 theoretical explanations

Answer 7

-Positivists
-Interpretivists
-Realists
-Feminists

Question 8

Positivists

Answer 8

They believe in applying logic of natural sciences to researching society- they prioritise objectivity.
-Use quantitative data as it is more measurable and reliable.
-They believe in studying social facts as things which can be compared and measured, therefore methods which are high in reliability are important
(Durkheim)

Question 9

Positivism

Answer 9

-Reliability: Replication, another sociologist should be able to repeat the research process, and consistency should be obtained.
-Objectivity value freedom: The sociologist should be neutral and not allow their personal, political and prejudiced views to bias any aspect of their research, or interpretation of data.
-Representative: Aim to get a representative sample of the group the sociologist is interested in, ppts studied should have characteristics that re typical of the target population
-Quantitative: data expressed in numerical form on graphs. Patterns and trends of human behaviour shown in statistics can be observed and compared to establish correlations.

Question 10

Interpretivists

Answer 10

Interpretivists seek to understand meanings and subjective experiences of their participants. They seek to gain Verstehen. They use qualitative data.
Gain in depth information and detail in order to interpret meanings behind actions.
Interpretivists believe research should focus on understanding rather than measurement and hence prefer the use of methods which are high in validity.
(associated sociologists= Interactionists)

Question 11

Interpretivism

Answer 11

-Verstehen: Empathetic understanding.
-Validity: positivists research can include bias as it is based on what the researcher thinks is important, No research can be value free- so free of bias.
-Ethnographic: Getting involved with the group being researched to understand fully and maintain empathy- High validity.
-Qualitative: Presents the quality of the way of life of the research subjects in the form of words not numbers. Methods that allow for data to be based on the participants speaking for themselves
-Reflexivity: Interpretivists aim to keep research diaries that document the trials of every stage of the process. It is a form of self evaluation that involves the researcher reflecting critically on how to organise their research, their experience of it and how a range of influences might have positively or negatively affected the validity of their findings.

Question 12

Realism

Answer 12

-Realists argue that research can follow the logic and methods of natural science(like positivists), however they state that science may not even be scientific as some aspects of science like meteorology are not able to control variables in the same way you can in scientific lab experiments. Therefore it may be pointless copying the scientific approach when not all science is like this
-They argue that research methods chosen should fit the purpose of the topic you are studying. For example, if you want to measure something choose quantitative, and to understand something choose qualitative
-This may mean that often methodological pluralism or triangulation are preferable as research approaches as is can gain both a combination of qualitative and quantitative data and/or means data can be cross checked easily.
-If the source in your exam focuses on mixed methods or qualitative and quantitative methods, it is probably a good idea to discuss. Realists in your theory paragraphs.

Question 13

Feminism

Answer 13

-Feminists research methods seek to gain access to the views of all people including women- combating ‘malestream’ Sociological research.
-Feminist methodology is normally qualitative but not exclusively, as they believe that methods fit the purpose.
-They often use in-depth interviews as they give women a voice and empower them.
-They believe women should be researched by women as only they can truly understand women’s issues.
-Feminists research is often grounded in feminists theory and therefore seeks to bring about social change and equality for women. It aims to raise awareness of issues women face- domestic violence
-If the source in your exam focuses on the role of women, it is probably a good idea to discuss feminism in your theory paragraphs.

Question 14

Operationalising concepts

Answer 14

-to operationalise a concept is to define it so that you can accurateky measure it.
-Operationalising concepts is essential for the validity of the research- so that the researcher and respondents are clear of what is meant by certain concepts.
-Sociologists sometimes use indicators to clarify their concepts.

Question 15

Operationalisation

Answer 15

-Sometimes the concepts can be simple to operationalise such as the sample of population for example- Disabled people= people with registered mental or physical disability
-Or more complex such as religious beliefs= the extent to which one has a strong belief in a supernatural power (indicators: attendance at a religious scriptures, prayer)

Question 16

Ethics

Answer 16

-ethics are practices that are seen as morally right and wrong when conducting research such as confidentiality, anonymity… One must be ethical when doing sociological research and adhere to moral codes of conducts with regards to ppts and the research itself.
-The BSA (British sociological association) is the regulatory body that puts down ethical guidelines that sociologists should follow when conducting research.
-Guidelines such as: confidentiality; privacy; anonymity; right to withdraw; avoiding harm to ppts; protecting vulnerable groups; informed consent; ensuring legality; safeguarding.

Question 17

Why do sociologists need to sample

Answer 17

-Its too expensive and time consuming for sociologists to involve the whole population in their research. So they select a sample
-When they select a sample they usually try to make it represent the population- with similar proportions of people in terms of age, class, ethnicity and gender to the proportions in the general population
-With the representative sample, the researcher can make generalisations. they can make statements about the whole population based on what they have found out about the researching sample.

Question 18

Sampling methods

Answer 18

-Gatekeeper: is a point of contact that can put you into contact with the ppts you wish to research, such as- children; prisoners; gang members; care home residents
-These groups are harder to research than others, gatekeepers are essential for children/students, prisoners and care home residents as they can ensure the safeguarding of the participants and the researcher.

Question 19

sampling frames

Answer 19

-sociologists select ppts from a list known as the sampling frame, this considers the following:
-sample must have general characteristics for this study
-the sample frame must be recent
-the electoral register is the most common sample frame
-other sample frames can be- school registers, company payrolls…
-practically a sample frame is a list where you can choose your ppts from

Question 20

Sampling types

Answer 20

-random sampling: where all people in the target population have an equal chance of being picked entirely by chance, this reduces risk of sample being biased by researchers choice, they can include unrepresentative sample if a similar characteristic is disproportionally chosen, a sampling frame is needed for this (systematic, stratified random sample)
-non-random sample: where people in the target population do not have an equal chance at being picked. A sampling frame is not needed but the sample is less likely to be representative and can be biased through researchers choice (snowball, quota sample)

Question 21

systematic random sampling

Answer 21

-Involves randomly choosing a number between 1 and 10- every other nth number is then selected from the sampling frame.
-this technique does not always guarantee a representative sample however the larger sample the more likely it is to be representative.

Question 22

systematic random sampling strengths and weaknesses

Answer 22

-STRENGTHS- everyone has the same chance at getting picked-reliable, Not biased-representative, preferred by positivists because of its scientific, objective nature- reliable
-WEAKNESSES- time consuming and people may pull out by the time the research is carried out- lowers representativeness and generalisability, the sampling frame wont always provide useful information therefore can lower generalisability and is biased, can lack representativeness if a greater number of one type of person is picked

Question 23

stratified random sampling

Answer 23

-this involves dividing the research population into a number of different sampling frames (based on gender, age, social class) Then ppts are selected from each to create a research sample, avoids the highest population from being over represented.
-STRENGTHS- everyone has the same chance at getting picked-reliable, Not biased-representative, preferred by positivists

Question 24

stratified random sampling strengths and weaknesses

Answer 24

STRENGTHS- can ensure that each group is represented, not biased, representative, preferred by positivists because of its scientific, objective nature- makes it reliable
WEAKNESSES- time consuming, people may pull out, sampling frame may not give specifics groups to include, if some groups have a large number of people then they are more likely to be chosen/biased- lowers representativeness and generalisability

Question 25

quota sampling

Answer 25

-Non-random -Researcher has a clear idea of the sample they want and where to find it. They will select the required population based on given criteria ( a certain amount of women/me/young people to meet their quota)

Question 26

quota sampling strength and weaknesses

Answer 26

STRENGTHS- useful when there is no sampling frame, more representative than other non-random techniques, targets a range of groups, easy to set targets WEAKNESSES- researcher may be biased towards a certain groups, no sampling frame so less scientific, more difficult to repeat, lowers reliability, numbers needed may not be representative of target population.

Question 27

snowball sampling

Answer 27

-Method mainly used by sociologists researching deviant groups. One contact will recruit other contacts to get involved in the research

Question 28

Snowball sampling strengths and weaknesses

Answer 28

STRENGTHS- useful when there is no sampling frame, good to use for studies with difficult groups to access, easy if one person acts as a gatekeeper, allows access and can build up a rapport- validity WEAKNESSES- not representative, no sampling frame, sample will be made up of the same type of people- lowers representativeness, biased/subjective- insiders researchers

Question 29

purposive/opportunity sampling

Answer 29

used to test a particular hypothesis, researcher only targets those that are directly linked to hypothesis

Question 30

Purposive/volunteer sampling strength and weaknesses

Answer 30

STRENGTHS- useful when there is no sampling frame, good when there is a specific type of person needed- representative, easy quick can get a large sample- representative and generalisability WEAKNESSES- not representative as there is no sampling frame, sample will be made up of the same type of people- lowers representativeness, biased subjective as its chosen by the researcher.

Question 31

Improving research- reflexivity

Answer 31

this is usually used by interpretivists where they keep track of the strengths and weaknesses of the research. This is to evaluate their work with the aim of improving its validity -STRENGTHS: -Practical strengths- when the researcher is reflexive they start to think critically about their research methods. This means they review the strengths and weaknesses of the data collection with the aim of improving their methods- this ensures that the groups are examined effectively which increases validity of the data -Practical strength- by the researcher being reflexive they are reviewing how their role can impact the validity of the data- they look out for issues surrounding interviewer effect which could mean that the respondents change their responses to give socially desirable ones. -Theoretical strengths- interpretivists favour this method as it ensures the researchers grasps a true understanding of the social reality, gains validity and verstehen about the group researched.

Question 32

Improving research- respondent validation

Answer 32

This is when the researchers interpretation of an event or situation is checked with that of those who took part in the vent, feedback is taken to check accuracy of data. STRENGTHS: -Practical strengths- researcher can gain feedback from the ppts who were involved to check if the way their behaviour was interpreted was correct, this improves validity and ensures that a group and social situations are represented accurately -Practical strengths- ensures the researcher isn't applying bias and existing perceptions to the research, can again improve the validity as a true insight can be gained. -Theoretical strengths- interpretivists favour this method as it ensures the researchers grasps a true understanding of the social reality, gains validity and verstehen about the group researched.

Question 33

Improving research- Triangulation

Answer 33

The use of more than one method of research (quantitative and qualitative) to cross check data being collected, to counter bias and increase confidence of findings STRENGTHS: -practical- increases accuracy of the research data, therefore high validity as there is a more true reflection of the social reality is gained. -practical- encourages reflexivity, checking that research is objective and value free, increasing validity, less bias -theoretical- realists prefer this because they believe that the purpose of research is to obtain data in order to compare and test theories against each other, the research approaches can give a combination of both quantitative and qualitative data- data can be crosschecked easily.

Question 34

Improving research- methodological pluralism

Answer 34

Mixed method approach where methods are combined to provide a fuller and more detailed, comprehensive picture of the topic. STRENGTHS: -practical- each method can provide different understanding of society, variety of methods allows a wide range of issues to be addressed increasing validity -practical- adv and dis can counter balance each other increasing validity -Theoretical- Realists prefer this because they believe that research is meant to gain full insight into the group being researched, can gain deeper understanding as there is a combination pf quantitative and qualitative data- cross checked easily.

Question 35

Questionnaires

Answer 35

List of questions subject to self completion Questions can either be open or closed

Question 36

Questionnaires STRENGTHS

Answer 36

STRENGTHS -practical- less time consuming and can be distributed to a large geographical area/ sample, improves generalisability as wider claims can be made -ethical- self completion so informed consent is given which increases validity as ppts feel comfortable answering questions, mor likely to be honest -theoretical- standardised questions makes it easy to replicate and therefore reliable meaning positivists would like this method.

Question 37

Questionnaire WEAKNESSES

Answer 37

WEAKNESSES -practical- can be subject to low response rates, can be made worse by standardised answers- affect generalisability of the data as sample size can be affected meaning wider claims might not be able to be made- people may give socially desirable answers which affects validity of data -ethical- Sensitive nature topic, some respondents may feel emotional harm and could potentially lie to give socially desirable responses- impact validity as it doesn't give true insight -theoretical- due to the standardised nature of questions the respondent may select the nearest answer that describes their situation but this may not be fully relevant. Interpretivists dislike this method as it is low in validity

Question 38

Content analysis

Answer 38

The number of times a sign, symbol, word, picture etc is used within a media text

Question 39

Content analysis STRENGTHS

Answer 39

STRENGTHS -practical- cheap method to carry out meaning that can be carried out again by other researchers aiming to replicate the initial method. This means that the reliability of the research is high. -ethical- no ppts are required, meaning that ethical guidelines set by BSA are easy to follow, increases reliability as it is easily replicable -theoretical- quantitative content analysis is seen as reliable as it can be carried out again and can be cross-checked- therefore positivists will favour this method

Question 40

Structured interviews

Answer 40

The researcher reads a list of closed questions and ticks boxes of pre-coded responses.

Question 41

Structured interviews STRENGTHS

Answer 41

STRENGTHS -practical- the use of closed and standardised questions and responses means data collected is likely to be objective, numerical and therefore increases reliability as it is replicable -ethical- interviewer can explain aims and objectives of the research to make candidate more comfortable, encourages informed consent to be given. Not high in validity, provide some strengths though, more likely to be honest -theoretical- due to the pre-coded responses numerical data can be easily collected, ensures that the data has value freedom from researchers own biases. positivists would like this method due to its strengths regarding relibility.

Question 42

structured interviews WEAKNESSES

Answer 42

WEAKNESSES -practical- interviews can be more time consuming than methods such as questionnaires. This means that it can be difficult to access a large sample- impacts the representativeness and the generalisability of the research as wider claims cannot be made to all who hold the characteristics being researched. -ethical- if the questions make the respondent feel uncomfortable this may lead to social desirability and safeguarding issues. Due to the lack of conversational flow ppts may be uncomfortable so not feel as if they have full right to withdraw. This can impact on the way they answer questions as they may lie which will impact on he validity of the research as they wont provide a full insight into their lives. -theoretical- Interpretivists would critique this method as they would suggest that it is not suitable when researching sensitive issues a sit could impact the responses therefore reducing the validity of research.

Question 43

Semi structured interviews

Answer 43

the researcher has some pre coded questions however they are bale to probe respondents and ask extra questions if needed, or have some set themes which are then discussed

Question 44

Semi structured interviews STRENGTHS

Answer 44

STRENGTHS -practical- they are flexible, themes can be explored by the interviewer if the find it interesting or relevant to the research aim- increases validity and in depth insight is gained. -ethical- more chance for a rapport to be built, this can allow for more empathy and understanding of sensitive topics being discussed-lead to better safeguarding and more honesty in their answers increasing validity -theoretical- Interpretivists would like the unstructured elements of the interviews can produce data that is more qualitative. In depth data can be gained increasing validity.

Question 45

Semi structured interviews WEAKNESSES

Answer 45

WEAKNESSES -practical- can be time consuming, small sample, decreased representativeness and generalisability as wider claims cannot be made -ethical- Interviewer effect can decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses- they may face emotional harm -theoretical- positivists would not like the flexibility and argue that if rapport builds then interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability of the researchers data, make sit difficult to replicate.

Question 46

Unstructured interviews

Answer 46

The researcher may have some themes to cover but no predetermined questions or rigid themes that they should follow. These interviews take a conversational flow.

Question 47

Unstructured interviews STRENGTHS

Answer 47

STRENGTHS -practical- these interview are pre arranged therefore higher response rate is common which increases representativeness of the research. They are flexible allowing for exploration of other issues which means validity is improved as true verstehen can be gained -ethical- rapport cam be built between the researcher and participant, so more conversational flow can occur meaning they would not feel emotional harm. This mean the participants are generally more comfortable so more honest therefore high validity. -theoretical- this method leads to lots of in-depth data collection as the interviewer can probe and ask extra questions. This dramatically increases the validity meaning interpretivists would like this method.

Question 48

Unstructured interviews WEAKNESSES

Answer 48

WEAKNESSES -practical- interviews can be time consuming so only a small sample therefore decreasing representativeness and generalisability as wider claims cannot be made. -ethical- interviewer effect can decrease the validity of the research as the respondent may feel they have to provide socially desirable responses rather than answering honestly. This because they may face emotional harm if they are uncomfortable -theoretical- Positivist would not like the lack of structure of this method and would argue that if rapport builds then the interviewer can become biased and lose objectivity and therefore impacting on the reliability.