Core studies Flashcards
Psychology Paper 2 Required Knowledge (196 cards)
1
Q
Background to Milgram
A
Millions killed on command (WW2) - Obedience can override moral values and views
2
Q
What was the research method of Milgram
A
Controlled observation
3
Q
Why was Milgram NOT a lab experiment
A
No independent variable
4
Q
Where did Milgram;s study take place
A
Yale university
5
Q
How was data gathered in Milgram’s study
A
Both with an experimenter in the same room and observers watching through one-way mirrors
6
Q
What was the sample of Milgram’s study
A
40 male participants aged 20-50 years. From the new haven area and obtained by newspaper article. Paid $4.50 for showing up
7
Q
Procedure of Milgram’s study
A
- Participants were given the role of “teacher” through a fixed lottery. The “Learner” (a confederate) was strapped into a chair with electrodes strapped to them. The “teacher” was given a 45 volt shock to stimulate genuineness.
- the participant then sat in front of a shock generator. They had to conduct a paired word test and was instructed to shock the learner for each incorrect answer. The machine went to 450v
- At 300 volts the confederate pounded on the wall.
- The teacher would continue and be responded with a series of prods upon asking the experimenter for help.
- The study concluded either at 450v or if the participant refused.
- The participant was then debriefed.
8
Q
What % of participants continued to 300v (Milgram)
A
100%
9
Q
What % of participants continued to 450v (Milgram)
A
65% (26/40)
10
Q
What other reactions did participants show? (Milgram)
A
Sweating, trembling, stuttering, nervous laughter
11
Q
What studies look at obedience?
A
Milgram and Bocchiaro
12
Q
What is a whistleblower?
A
A person who exposes/informs on a person or organisation regarded as engaging in unlawful or immoral activity
13
Q
What is the background to Bocchiaro?
A
Milgram did research into obedience but nothing was known about obedience to unjust authority.
14
Q
What type of study was Bocchiaro?
A
Lab study or Scenario study
15
Q
Where did Bocchiaro take place?
A
Laboratory in a university in amsterdam
16
Q
What was the sample of Bocchiaro’s study?
A
149 undergraduate students. 96f, 53m, Mean age of 20.8
17
Q
What was the procedure of Bocchiaro?
A
- Each participant was greeted in the laboratory by a male, Dutch experimenter who was formally dressed and had a stern demeanour
- Experimenter requested names of other students and then explained the cover story. (Previous research into sensory deprivation on older people. Disastrous effects. Wanted to repeat experiment with a younger demographic. Participants had to write a reference and were given the opportunity to write a report for the ethics committee. After 7 minutes the experimenter returned for debrief
18
Q
What % of participants in Bocchiaro obeyed?
A
76.5%
19
Q
What % of participants in Bocchiaro disobeyed
A
14.1%
20
Q
What % of participants in Bocchiaro blew the whistle
A
9.4%
21
Q
Was there any difference due to religion or gender (Bocchiaro)?
A
No
22
Q
What are the conclusions of Bocchiaro?
A
People tend to obey unjust authority
What people think will happen often differs from reality
Behaving in a moral matter is difficult for most people
23
Q
What was the research method of experiment 1 (L&P)
A
Lab experiment - independent measures (IV = Wording of the question) (DV= Estimated speed)
24
Q
What was the background of L&P
A
Interested in the fragility of memory and validity of eyewitness testimony
25
What was the sample of experiment 1 (L&P)
45 students in washington, split into 5 groups of 9
26
What were the 5 verbs in experiment 1 (L&P)
Hit, Collided, Smashed, Contacted, Bumped
27
What was the DV in experiment 1 (L&P)
Estimated speed
28
Procedure of experiment 1 (L&P)
Students were shown 7 clips of car accidents, 4 of which were staged with speeds known. After each clip they were asked to give an account of the accident and then fill in a questionairre.
29
What type of data collection was L&P
Self report - questionairres.
30
Average speeds of cars (L&P)
Smashed: 40.8
Collided: 39.3
Bumped: 38.1
Hit: 34.0
Contacted: 31.8
31
Conclusions of experiment 1 (L&P)
People are bad at estimating speed
Forms of questions do change answers given
32
Explanations of results in experiment 1 (L&P)
Response bias : word in question influences response
Memory change : word in queation changed memory about speed
33
Sample of experiment 2 (L&P)
150 students from washington, split into 3x50s
34
Independent variable for experiment 2 (L&P)
The verb used in the critical question (Hit, smashed + control)
35
Procedure of experiment 2 (L&P)
Participants watched a 1m clip depicting a car crash. They then answered a question which changed for each group about the speed of the crash. A week later they returned to answer 10 more questions including one about broken glass
36
Dependent variable of experiment 2 (L&P)
Whether they incorrectly recalled broken glass, Estimated speed of car in the video
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What controls were present in experiment 2 (L&P)
Video used
Time between testing
Critical question
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How many people 'saw' broken glass (L&P)
16/50 -> Smashed
7/50 -> Hit
6/50 -> Control
39
Conclusion of experiment 2 (L&P)
The form of a question DOES change witness memory
40
Background to Grant
Previous research into context dependant memory within divers. The best recall happened within matching conditions
41
Aims of Grant
To investigate context dependant memory in relation to meaningful prose
42
Sample of Grant
Aged 17-56 with 17 female and 23 male participants. Split into 4 conditions. One removed due to low performance
43
Procedure of Grant
Participants were placed in one of four conditions and had to read a 2 page article on psychoimmunity. They were allowed to read the article once. They then had to do a 10 question recall test followed by a 16 question multiple choice recognition test
44
Conditions in grant
Noisy - Noisy: Read article and answered question with noise playing
Noisy - Silent: Read article with noise and answered questions in silence
Silent - Silent: Read article and answered question in silence
Silent - Noisy: Read article with silence and answered questions with noise
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Recall results (Grant)
NN: 6.2
NS: 5.4
SN: 4.7
SS: 6.7
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Recognition results (Grant)
NN: 14.3
NS: 12.7
SN: 12.7
SS: 14.3
47
Conclusion (Grant)
Participants performed better in matching conditions, supporting the idea of context dependant memory.
48
Background to piliavin
Kitty Genovese - murdered in Kew Gardens with nobody reporting the assault until after the victim was dead
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Previous research (piliavin)
Lab experiemnts that showed the larger the group the more likely the individual is to get help
50
What is bystander apathy
When bystanders do not help for a variety of reasons
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Aims of Piliavin
To see if type or race of victim changes propinquity to help. To see if an increase in people or model presence can help encourage helping
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Hypothesis (Piliavin)
Type of victim: Drunk less than ill
Race of victim: same race first
No. of witnesses: more witnesses less help
Model: Would encourage
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What is a field experiment
Has IV, DV and takes place in real setting
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Ivs (Pilliavin)
Model conditions (early or late)
Victim conditions (race, sick or drunk)
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Dvs (Pilliavin)
Time taken for help to arrive, total no of helpers, extra info such as race and location
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Sample (Piliavin)
passengers in NYC over 3 month period
45% black 55% white.
Mean of passengers per carriage
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Sampling method (piliavin)
Oppurtunity sampling - whoever was there in the new york subway at the time (11am-3pm on a weekday)
58
Procedure of piliavin
70 seconds into the journey the victim would collapse in the critical area and stare at the ceiling until helped
After a further 70 or 150 seconds an informally dressed white male model (either in the critical or adjacent area) would help the victim
Two female observers were sat in the adjacent area recording variables such as sex, race and location of helpers
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Procedure of piliavin (conf)
Males
Aged 26-35
3 were white and 1 was black
Dressed in eisenhower jackets, old trousers, shirt and no tie
38 trials - ‘drunk’ smelled of alcohol and carried a liquor bottle in a brown paper bag
65 trials - ‘cane/ill’ appeared sober and carried a black cane
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What did piliavin control
Victim + model behaviour
Location of models
Stations and times
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What did piliavin not control
View if carriage is muted
Chance of other emergencies
Delays
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Quantitive findings (piliavin)
Ill victims reciee help 95% of time
Drunk victims helped 50% of time
90% pf first helpers were male
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Qualitative findings (piliavin)
Race had little difference
Models were rarely needed
"You fee lbad when you don't know what do do"
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Conclusions (Piliavin)
State of victim affects likelihood to help
No diffusion of responsibility
Race makes no difference
65
Background to levine
Studies on communities mostly focus on population size rather than location (Maximum of three countries)
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Aims of Levine
To see if culture changes helping chance
To see if helping is consistent across situations
To see what characteristics of communities increase helping
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Sample of Levine
Data from 23 countries where levine's students were going to in their break. Largest city
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Procedure of levine
One individual (male, college aged, dressed smartly) Did one of 3 actions.
Not done infront of children, physically disabled, or not able to help.
Business hours
69
What were the three conditions of Levine
Dropped pen
Hurt leg
Helping blind person across the street
70
Dropped pen condition (Levine)
Help was if the pen was returned or if the participant was told they dropped it
71
Hurt leg condition (levine)
Help was if a participant picked up the magazines dropped.
72
Helping blind person condition (levine)
Help was if they were assisted across the street or told if the light was green
73
Results (Levine)
Most helpful was Rio, Brazil (93% of the time was helped)
Least helpful was Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (40% of the time helping)
74
How did situation differ (Levine)
Relatively stable across the three conditions
75
What were the four community variables (Levine)
1) Population size
2) Purchasing parity (Wealth)
3) Individualist / Collectivist (1-10)
4) Pace of life (walking speed in the city)
76
Results of community variables (Levine)
Population size : No significant colleration
Wealth: Significant negative correlation -> poorer cities help more
Individualist : No significant correlation
Pace of life : Slight negative correlation. Not significant
77
What is simpatica culture
Hispanic countries (Brazil, Costa rica, spain, mexico) Had a higher rate of helping each other 83%
78
gender difference (Levine)
No significant differences in gender found
79
Background to Bandura
There was a belief that children would copy the actions of an adult that has been shown
80
Aim of bandura
To see whether children initate adult behaviour both when a model is present and when they are no longer
81
Four hypothesis (Bandura)
1) Subjects exposed to aggressive models would reproduce aggressive acts
2) Observation of non-aggressive models would have a generalised inhibiting effect on behaviour
3) Subjects would imitate behaviour of a same sex model more
4) Boys would be more pre-diposed to aggression than girls
82
Sample of Bandura
72 participants from Stanford university
Aged 37-69 Months
Equal gender split
83
Sampling method (Bandura)
Oppurtunity sampling
84
Experiment design (Bandura)
Participants were matched by age, sex and IQ before being put into groups
85
What conditions were matched (Bandura)
Physical aggression
Verbal aggression
Aggression inhibition
Aggression toward inanimate objects
86
Inter rater reliability 9Bandura)
0.89 (High)
87
How were they grouped (Bandura
With people with the same score on the pre test. They would then go into different test groups
88
What were the 5 model conditions (Bandura)
1) Aggressive male model
2) Aggressive female model
3) Non-Aggressive male model
4) Non-Aggressive female model
5) No model (control
89
Stage 1 procedure (Bandura)
Child and model sat in the same room with toys.
Non agressive condition -> Playyed with toys and ignored bobo doll
Aggressive condition -> Model wa aggressive towards the bobo doll after 1 minute
90
Stage 2 procedure (Bandura)
Children were taken into a smaller room with attractive toys. They stayed there foe 2 minutes before having to leave the room
91
Stage 3 procedure (Bandura)
This room included all of the toys from before as well as extra aggressive toys. Participants were allowed to play alone for 20 minutes with notes on actions being made every 5 seconds
92
Quantitative findings (Bandura)
Boys watching aggressive model showed aggressive acts 25.8 times compared to 1.5 when watching non
Watching a same sex model increased aggressive acts a lot.
Boys showed 38.2 aggressive acts compared to girls with 12.7
93
Qualiative findings (Bandura)
"That aint no way for a lady to behave"
"He's a good fighter like daddy"
94
Conclusions (Bandura)
More likely to show agression with an aggressive model
Male more likely to show aggresion than female
Watching non-aggressive models had an inhibition on aggression shown
95
Background to Chaney
Asthma affects 1/10 people. Even with treatments, most people do not use them correctly
96
Aim of Chaney
To see if operant conditioning can encourage children to use their meds correctly and more frequently
97
Funhaler
Positive: Spinner and whistle
Negative: Took away nasty symptoms
98
Sample (Chaney)
32 children from the perth area (22M 10F ages 1.5-6 years
99
Procedure of Chaney
Parents were contacted by phone before being contacted at home. Written consent was obtained before a questionnaire was filled out about their current inhaler
Parents were given 2 weeks with the funhaler
After the two weeks they were contacted again with a questionnaire about the funhaler
100
Findings of Chaney
50% -> 80% Success on the actual delivery of treatment
10% -> 61% Happiness rating about the funhaler device
101
Background to sperry
Epilepsy is caused by abnormal impulses in the brain disrupting brain patterns.
Split brain surgery included the corpus callosum being severed so abnormal impulses could not spread. Sperry thought these participants would be perfect for research into what regions of the brain actually do.
102
Aim of Sperry
To study functions of seperated and independant hemispheres
103
Sample of sperry
11 patients who had undergone a commissurotomy as a treatment for epilepsy. Obtained from surgery in USA.
Compared t oa control group
104
Procedure of sperry
Participants were given visual stimuli into either the left or right hemisphere of the brain, like words or images. Participants then had to describe what they had seen
105
Conclusions of Sperry
Left hemisphere : Controls both language ability and the right hand side of your body
Right hemisphere : Can communicate non verbally and controls the left hand side of your body
106
Background to Casey
Marshmallow test : Participants had to resist the urge of eating a marshmallow for 5 minutes in order to get a second after the time was up. People who did were called High delayers and those who didnt were called low delayers.
107
Sample of casey
59 adults from the marshmallow test taken 20 years after the initial study. there were 27 low delayers and 32 high delayers.
108
Procedure of Experiment 1 (Casey)
A button was set up infront of a monitor. the participant would be told to press the button for a specific stimulus (seeing a female face) as fast as possible, then when they saw a scared face but not a happy face. They did 2 "hot tasks" - Tempting and appealing - and 2 "cold tasks" - neutral.
Participants had to respond as fast as possible.
109
Experimental method EXP1 (Casey)
Both independent and repeated - Participants were either high or low delayers AND took past in both the hot and cool task.
110
Key result EXP1 (Casey)
Low delayers made a lot more mistakes in the hot task than high delayers. They were too tempted to press on the smiling face.
111
Conclusion EXP1 (Casey)
The ability to delay gratification is a stable characteristic - doesnt change with age
112
Experiment 2 (casey) Sample
Results from 26 participants (11 low, 15 high)
113
Procedure of EXP2 (Casey)
Participants were given the same task but inside an fMRI scanner.
114
Findings of EXP2 (Casey)
Ventral Striatum is more active when presented with tempting stimuli. (Low delayers)
Inferior frontal Gyrus is more active when resisting temptation (High delayers)
115
Conclusion to EXP2
Differences in people's ability to delay gratification can be related to neural differences
116
Freud's theory of psychosexual development
Sexual impulses are present in new born children and they seek satisfaction through their own body
117
5 stages of psychosexual development
1) Oral - child is fascinated with putting things in their mouth
2) Anal - hold excrement in until contractions
3) Phallic - Boys fear girls were castrated for playing with their penis. Oedipus complex - sexual desire for mother
4) Latency - Interest is diverted to hobbies etc.
5) Genital - Sexual desire increases but moves to other people
118
Aim of freud
To provide exidence for the theory of psychosexual development
119
Sample of freud
Case study.
Little hans studied from 3rd birthday for 2 years.
From Vienna and was described as a cheerful, lively baby
120
Sampling method of freud
Volunteer.
121
Procedure of freud
1) Letters - Hans' father recorded behaviour shown and conversations had. He would make his own interpretations and sent to freud.
2) Replies - Freud would reply with his own interpretations and give guidance on what hans' father should discuss and behaviour to look out for
122
Data collection (Freud)
Self report
123
Findings (Freud)
124
Conclusions 9Freud)
Claimed he learned nothing new. Supported psychosexual development, the oedipus complex and the idea that fears come from the unconscious
125
Background to Baron-Cohen
Autism.
Theory of mind - ability to infer what others are thinking/feeling
Ceiling effect - when a test places a cap on level of ability that can be shown
Tourette's - Tics / involuntary movements
126
Aims of BC
To investigate whether adults with autism experience a deficit in theory of mind. To develop a new way of measuring TOM.
127
Sample of BC
Autistic - 16 adults aged 18-49 Recruite via an advert in a magazine
Control - 50 neurotypical adults aged 18-48 from Cambridge
Tourettes - 10 adults with tourettes ages 18-47
128
Control tasks (BC)
Gender recognition - black + white images to recognise gender
Basic emotion recognition - sadness anger etc
129
Eyes task (BC)
New theory of mind test that showed black and white images and had to pick the emotion showed
130
Mean scores (BC)
Autistic - 16.3
Control - 20.3
Tourettes - 20.4
131
Mean scores gender (BC)
Male - 18.8
Female - 21.8
132
Conclusions (BC)
Autistic adults stilll have TOM impediments
133
Background to S+C
Innatentional blindness - Failing to see something because focus is on something else
134
Previous research (s+C)
Nessier -> 1970s investigation included watching a video of 2 teams pass a ball around, with a woman walking across who was not noticed. This was made by overlaying 3 separate videos on top of each other
135
Aims of S+C
Wanted to investigate whether transparency of a video affected attention. Wanted to research into effects f the nature of unexpcted events
136
Sample of S+C
192 participants - most undergrads from Harvard. 12 participants per condition
137
Procedure of S+C
Participants were shown a 75s video clip and asked questions on what they had seen. There were 16 conditions of experiment with participants taking part of one each
138
IVs of S+C
1) Transparent or opaque video
2) Umbrella or gorilla
3) Counting passes by black or white team
4) Count total passes or bounce and arial
139
DV of s+c
Whether the participant reported seeing the unexpected event
140
Results of S+C
46% overall level of blindness
141
Video appearence (S+C)
Opaque - 66.5% saw
Transparent = 41.6% saw
142
Event (S+C)
Umbrella - 65.5% saw
Gorilla - 42.6% saw
143
Team (s+C)
Black - 67% saw
White - 8% saw
144
Difficulty of task (S+C)
Easy - 63.5% saw
Difficult - 44.6% saw
145
Conclusion of S+C
Paying attention to one task may result in failing to see an unexpected event. Further proves evidence for sustained blindness.
146
Background to Moray
Attention is limited - put up a barrier
Cherry proposed a coctail party effect where tje innatentional barrier put up can only be broken by hearing your name.
147
Definitions (Moray)
Cocktail party effect - can hear our own name in a crowded room
Dichotic listening - different messages played to each ear
Shadowing - repeating a passage of text out loud as it is heard
Affecive instructions - name is said before a command
Non-Affective instruction - name is not said before a command
148
Aims of Moray
To test cherry's findigns of the innatentional barrier
149
Equipment of moray
Stereophonic tape recorder
Headphones
150
Sample of Moray (EX1)
Oxford students, both male and female
151
Procedure of Moray (EX1)
Participants had to shadow prose listenend to in one ear. In the other ear a list of words was repeated 35 times, Participants then had to complete a recognition task to see what words they recognised hearing
152
Results of Moray (EX1)
Recognised 4.9 words from the shadowed passage
1.9 from the list
2.6 similar words
153
Conclusions of Moray (EX1)
Participants are more likely to recognise words from the shadowed passage. almost no words break the barrier
154
Aim of Moray (EX2)
To see if an affective cue can break through the barrier
155
Sample of moray (EX2)
12 undergrad students, both M?&F
156
IV of Moray (EX2)
Affective instructions: Preceded by name being said
Non-Affective: not preceded by name being said
157
DV of Moray (EX2)
Whether participants were more likely to hear an instruction in a message if their name is said
158
Procedure of moray (EX2)
Participants heard 10 pieces of light ficrion. They were given instructions that would tell them to change ear or stop. This could be affective or non affective. The instructions were either at the start or beginning of the passage. They were steady monotone readings, at a pace of 130 words per minute.
159
Results of Moray (EX2)
participants heard affective instructions 20/39 times
They heard non-affective 4/36 times
160
Conclusions of Moray (EX2)
Affective messages are able to break the inattentional barrier
161
Aim of moray (EX3)
To see if pre-warning can break the barrier
162
Sample of Moray (EX3)
28 students split into 2x 14s
Both M&F from oxford uni
163
IV of moray (EX3)
Whether they were warned of the question they would be asked
164
DV of Moray (EX3)
How many digits of the rejected message could be remembered
165
Procedure of Moray (EX3)
Participants had to shadow a message that sometimes contained digits, before doing a recall task on how mnay digits could be rememebred
166
Resul;ts of Moray (EX3)
No significant difference between groups
167
Conclusion of Moray (EX3)
Warnings do not help information break through the inattentional barrier
168
Aim of Kohlberg
To provide evidence of his theory of moral development
169
Sample of Kohlberg
75 boys aged 10-16 until they were 22-28 years of age
170
Procedure of Kohlberg
Every boy was presented with a moral dilemma ebery three years. They had to give an answer to it which Kohlberg would rank into one of six catagories
These catagories formed the staged of moral development
171
Findings of Kohlberg
Three levels of morality: Pre conventional, conventional, Post conventional
172
Staged of Morality (Kohlberg)
1) Obedience and punishment orientation
2) Self interest orientation
3) Conformity to expectation ( GBGG )
4) Social order orientation
5) Social contract orientation
6) Universal ethical principals
173
Background to Lee
Individualist/Collectivist views
Whether people's identities are defined by personal choices, or by the groups that people see themselves as part of
174
Aims of Lee
To see if the culture a child grows up in and their age can change views about lying and truth telling
175
Sample of Lee
108 children from canada, 120 children from china
176
Procedure of Lee
Each child was read 4 stories and asked 2 questions: whether the action done was good or naughty and what the teacher ws told was good or naughty
177
Types of story (Lee)
1) Child would behave anti-socially then lie
2) Child would behave antisocially then tell the truth
3) Child would behave pro socially then lie
4) Child would behave pro socially then lie
178
Pro-Social truth Results of Lee
Children in china view this less positively - begging for praise
179
Pro-Social lie Results of Lee
Children in china view this as positive as they got older
180
Anti-social Truth telling (Lee)
Both rate very positively
181
Anti-Social Lie telling
Both rate very negatively
182
Background to B+C
Investigating brain placticity - Could change the way neurons work by raising them differently
183
Aims of B+C
To compare behavioural consequences of limiting vision
To investigate physiological effects on neurons
184
Sample of B+C
2 kittens from birth until 1 year of age
185
Procedure of B+C
1) First 2 weeks of life the kittens were kept in the dark
2) 2 weeks -> 5 months kittens were put into a striped cylinder for 5 hours a day
3) Kitten taken into a well lit room after 5 months of this
186
IV of B+C
The orientation of stripes in cylinder
187
Behavioural results of B+C
Cats showed deficits in vision when put into bright room.
Navigated room by touch
Generally clumsy
Normal pupillary reflexes
No startle response
No visual placing.
Recovered visual placing + startle response after 10 hours, still clumsy though
188
Physical findings of B+C
Visual neurons had aligned themselves to match the environment the kitten was brought up in. They had no need foe neurons in other direction
189
Conclusions of B+C
Neurons can change orientation to respond to a stimulus in the visual input
190
Aim of Maguire
To show whether the hippocampus had plasticity among humans
191
Sample of maguire
16 male right handed taxi drivers between 32 and 62 who all passed the knowledge.
50 scans of other people who matched those conditions
192
Procedure of Maguire
MRI scans were taken of the participants brains. Size of hippocampus was then measured using both pixel counting and a VBM method to calculate size.
193
Results of Maguire
VBM -> Taxi drivers had larger volume of posterior hippocampus
Pixel counting -> Taxi drivers had bigger area of grey matter in the posterior hippocampus .
194
Conclusions of Maguire
Relying on navigational skills is associated with redistribution of grey matter in the hippocampus
195
Background to Hanckcok
Previous research into psychopaths' language is incohesive and inconsistent.
196
