Course 4: How Behaviour Works Flashcards

Question

Formal operational stage

Answer 1

The last stage in Piaget’s theory is the formal operational stage, which is from about age 11 to adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share her perceptions.

Answer 2

Developmental psychologists that disagree with Piagnet suggest a fifth stage, the postformal stage. In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on circumstances and emotions.

Answer 3

In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband have done that? Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg was not interested in a yes/no response, but the reasoning behind your answer.

Answer 4

Pre-conventional morality (before age 9) Conventional morality (early adolescence) Post-conventional morality (few fully achieve this; formal operational thought must be obtained first)

Answer 5

Pre-conventional morality Stage 1: Obedience and punishment - driven by avoiding punishment Stage 2: Individual interest - driven by reward Conventional morality Stage 3: Interpersonal - driven by social approval Stage 4: Authority - driven by conforming to authority and social order Post-conventional morality Stage 5: Social contract - driven by balance of social order and individual rights Stage 6: Universal ethics - driven by internal morals

Answer 6

Germinal, embryonic, and fetal

Answer 7

Weeks 1-2, a mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the child at the moment of conception. Conception occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote. A zygote begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote undergoes mitosis. Mitosis is a fragile process, and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks. As the cells divide, they become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins.

Answer 8

Weeks 3-8, after the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an embryo. Now blood vessels grow, forming the placenta. The placenta is a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. Basic structures of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain.

Answer 9

Weeks 9-40, when the organism is about nine weeks the embryo is called a fetus. At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins to take on the form of a human being as the “tail” begins to disappear. From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16 weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4 pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks 16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to move around and birth becomes imminent.

Answer 10

A teratogen is any biological, chemical, or physical substance that can damage an embryo/fetus.

Answer 11

FASD are a collection of birth defects related to alcohol during pregnancy. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment, poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower IQ scores. Below-average head circumference Smaller than average eye opening, skin folds at corners of eyes Low nasal bridge, short nose Smaller than average midface size Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum (indentation in middle of upper lip)

Answer 12

When a mother smokes, nicotine travels through the placenta to the fetus. The developing baby experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. Smoking while pregnant can result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).

Answer 13

The specific period where an organ in the fetus develops. For example, research suggests that alcohol exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to significant facial abnormalities in the fetus.

Answer 14

A newborn reflex, with rooting, babies turn and suck whatever touches their cheek. This reflex is unlearned and automatic.

Answer 15

A newborn reflex, with grasping, a baby automatically grabs anything that touches his palms.

Answer 16

A newborn reflex, this happens when a baby feels like he's falling. He spreads his arms, pulls them back in, and starts crying.

Answer 17

Each baby is born with around 100-200 billion neurons. During blooming, thousands of connections form between them during infancy and toddlerhood.

Answer 18

The stage after blooming, pruning is the stage where neural connections are reduced. It is thought that this allows the brain to function more efficiently. This continues from childhood to adolescence.

Answer 19

The brain of a 2 year old is 55% in size, and the brain of a 6 year old is 90% of its adult size. During early childhood (ages 3–6), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior. Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced in childhood tend to follow Piaget’s sequence of cognitive development, so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive advances.

Answer 20

Infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow, was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this impossible event. Baillargeon concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each other. His findings suggest that very young children have an understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget would have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited experiences in the world.

Answer 21

Between 3 and 5 years old, children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own.

Answer 22

Around 6-9 months - Infants can shake their head "no" Around 9-12 months - Respond to verbal requests Around 12-24 months - Mastery of object permanence, enjoying games like hide-and-seek 2-3 years - Egocentric 3-5 years - Counting, naming colours, simple decisons, curiosity (asking "why?") 6-11 years - Logic, mathematics, short attention span (improves after 11 years of age)

Answer 23

Babies begin to coo (consonant + vowel eg. ba, coo), and then babble (repeating of syllable eg. ma-ma). When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for meaning at about 18 months. At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3 years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in sentences. During early childhood, a "vocabulary spurt" occurs where children learn 10-20 new words a week. It has been estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000 words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use slang and clichés.

Answer 24

Noam Chomsky criticized Skinner's theory that language is learned in response to environment/feedback. He thought that we were all born with an innate capacity to learn language.

Answer 25

In the 1950s, Harlow conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be fed. Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their nourishment. However, Harlow concluded that there was more to the mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to healthy psychosocial development.

Answer 26

John Bowlby developed the concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the caregiver. A secure base is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions.

Answer 27

In Mary Ainsworth's experiment Strange situation, a mother and infant were placed in a room with some toys. After some time together, the mother was replaced with a stranger. Once a few minutes have passed, the mother comes back to comfort the child. The experiment identified three kinds of attachment, and later a fourth (disorganized) - secure, avoidant, and resistant.

Answer 28

The most common type of attachment—also considered the healthiest—is called secure. In this type of attachment, the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their caregivers left the room in the Strange situation experiment, but when their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to see them.

Answer 29

With avoidant attachment, the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs .

Answer 30

In cases of resistant attachment, children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them. These children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child.

Answer 31

Children with disorganized attachment behaved oddly in the Strange situation. They freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a child’s ability to regulate their emotions.

Answer 32

A red spot of paint is put on a child's nose before placing them in front of a mirror. It was discovered that around the age of 18 months the toddler will recognize that the image is her own.

Answer 33

Self-concept is an understanding of who someone is. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more willing to try new activities. Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson’s toddlerhood stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school, when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson’s adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses, keeping some messages and rejecting others.

Answer 34

Diana Baumrind developed a theory on four parenting styles that affect the healthy development of self-concept Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved

Answer 35

With the authoritative style, the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. Parents set rules and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a function of culture. Authoritative style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.

Answer 36

In authoritarian style, the parent places high value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups. For instance, first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by authoritative parents.

Answer 37

For parents who employ the permissive style of parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents might not have bedtime rules at all—instead they allow the child to choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades. The permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior especially among female children, and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children. However, children raised by permissive parents tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression.

Answer 38

With the uninvolved style of parenting, the parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance abuse, or other factors such as the parents’ extreme focus on work. These parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else. The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse.

Answer 39

Temperaments are the innate traits that we possess that determine how we interact with others and the environment. Children that have easy temperaments are positive and adapt well to change in contrast with children that have difficult temperaments. Conversely, it is possible that easy temperaments evoke warm and responsive parenting compared to difficult temperaments.

Answer 40

Maturing of adrenal glands during adolescence

Answer 41

Maturing of the sex glands during adolescence

Answer 42

Organs that are specifically required for reproduction, such as the ovaries and testes.

Answer 43

Signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs. This can include development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys.

Answer 44

Beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12-13 years old

Answer 45

First ejaculation in males, usually around 12-14 years old

Answer 46

During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height. For girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old. Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old, and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence height.

Answer 47

Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity. Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. Late blooming boys and girls may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict with parents, and more likely to be bullied. Adolescents engage in risky behaviour possibly because their frontal lobes are still developing.

Answer 48

Similar to theory-of-mind, it is the ability to take the perspective for others and feel concern. During adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable of abstract thought. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations, debate ideas and opinions (politics, religion, and justice), and form new ideas. In addition, it’s not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge established societal norms. This is vital to social problem solving and conflict avoidance.

Answer 49

The development between 18 to 20 years old that is focused on work and love.

Answer 50

By the time adulthood (20 to early 40s) is reached, we are at peak physical performance (eg. muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, cardiac functioning). Many women have children in the young adulthood years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes. Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s Physical decline is gradual. The skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause around 50 years old. Both men and women tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray. Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the last stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity, reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell, taste, hearing, and vision decline significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels, leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease in later years.

Answer 51

Cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early and middle adulthood. Our crystallized intelligence (information, skills, and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience) tends to hold steady as we age—it may even improve. However, in late adulthood we begin to experience a decline in another area of our cognitive abilities—fluid intelligence (information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory).

Answer 52

The theory suggests that our social support and friendships dwindle with age, but remain as close, if not more close than in our earlier years. People become increasingly selective, investing greater resources in emotionally meaningful goals and activities.

Answer 53

The aim of hospice is to help provide a death with dignity and pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is usually outside of a hospital setting. Hospice patients report high levels of satisfaction with hospice care because they are able to remain at home and are not completely dependent on strangers for care. In addition, hospice patients tend to live longer than non-hospice patients. Family members have a lowered burden, with regular reports about the patient's condition.

Answer 54

Elizabeth Kübler-Ross proposed the process of the 5 stages of grief. Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.