CTB8-10 Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
What is anaphylaxis?
A
A severe systemic allergic reaction involving respiratory and cardiovascular systems.
2
Q
What triggers anaphylaxis?
A
Allergens such as foods, insect stings, drugs (e.g., penicillin), and latex.
3
Q
How does IgE contribute to anaphylaxis?
A
IgE binds mast cells and basophils, causing degranulation upon antigen exposure.
4
Q
What mediators are released during mast cell degranulation?
A
Histamine, leukotrienes, prostaglandins, and cytokines.
5
Q
What is the physiological effect of histamine?
A
Vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, bronchoconstriction, and itching.
6
Q
What are the four classical signs of acute inflammation?
A
Rubor (redness), calor (heat), tumor (swelling), and dolor (pain).
7
Q
What is loss of function (functio laesa)?
A
A fifth sign of inflammation; severe dysfunction results in systemic collapse in anaphylaxis.
8
Q
How does anaphylaxis affect the cardiovascular system?
A
Systemic vasodilation causes hypotension and shock.
9
Q
What happens to the respiratory system during anaphylaxis?
A
Bronchoconstriction, airway oedema, and mucus production cause dyspnoea.
10
Q
Why is adrenaline the first-line treatment for anaphylaxis?
A
It reverses hypotension (vasoconstriction), bronchodilation, and mast cell stabilisation.
11
Q
What are the ABC principles of anaphylaxis treatment?
A
Airway, Breathing, and Circulation.
12
Q
What is the role of leukotrienes in anaphylaxis?
A
They sustain bronchoconstriction, inflammation, and increased vascular permeability.
13
Q
What happens to mast cells during anaphylaxis?
A
They degranulate, releasing preformed and newly synthesised mediators.
14
Q
How is anaphylactic shock defined?
A
Severe hypotension and tissue hypoperfusion due to systemic vasodilation.
15
Q
What is the function of basophils in anaphylaxis?
A
They complement mast cell responses, releasing histamine and other mediators.
16
Q
What is the role of prostaglandins in anaphylaxis?
A
They induce pain, vasodilation, and inflammation.
17
Q
What pathway leads to IgE production?
A
Th2 cells stimulate B cells to switch to IgE production in response to antigens.
18
Q
What are the symptoms of anaphylaxis?
A
Rashes, swelling, hypotension, bronchospasm, gastrointestinal distress, and dizziness.
19
Q
How is anaphylaxis diagnosed clinically?
A
By acute onset of symptoms involving skin, respiratory, cardiovascular, or gastrointestinal systems.
20
Q
What is the incidence of anaphylaxis in the population?
A
Approximately 0.05-2% of people experience anaphylaxis.
21
Q
What does adrenaline act on to restore cardiovascular function?
A
Alpha-1 receptors (vasoconstriction) and beta-2 receptors (bronchodilation).
22
Q
Why does vascular permeability increase in anaphylaxis?
A
Histamine and leukotrienes induce endothelial cell contraction, causing leakage.
23
Q
How can anaphylaxis cause laryngeal oedema?
A
Increased vascular permeability causes fluid leakage into airway tissues.
24
Q
What is biphasic anaphylaxis?
A
A recurrence of symptoms hours after the initial reaction, even with treatment.
25
Why are antihistamines used in anaphylaxis management?
They block histamine action, reducing swelling, itching, and rash.
26
What is the role of glucocorticoids in anaphylaxis?
They reduce late-phase inflammation and prevent recurrent symptoms.
27
What are lipid mediators?
Molecules like leukotrienes and prostaglandins produced from arachidonic acid.
28
Why is oxygen therapy important in anaphylaxis?
It counters hypoxaemia caused by bronchoconstriction and airway oedema.
29
What is the role of tryptase in anaphylaxis?
Tryptase is a mast cell-specific enzyme that can confirm mast cell activation.
30
Why is mast cell activation rapid in anaphylaxis?
Pre-formed mediators (e.g., histamine) are released immediately upon antigen binding.
31
What are the key inducers of anaphylaxis?
Foods, drugs, insect stings, and latex.
32
What mechanisms cause hypotension in anaphylaxis?
Systemic vasodilation and increased capillary permeability reduce blood volume.
33
How does anaphylaxis affect gastrointestinal function?
Smooth muscle contraction causes nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea.
34
How does IgE-mediated hypersensitivity differ from other types?
It is immediate, mediated by IgE, and causes mast cell degranulation.
35
How are adrenaline auto-injectors used in emergency management?
They deliver intramuscular adrenaline to quickly reverse symptoms.
36
Why does anaphylaxis sometimes cause wheezing?
Bronchoconstriction reduces airway diameter, increasing airflow resistance.
37
How do cytokines contribute to anaphylaxis?
They amplify inflammation by recruiting immune cells.
38
What are common anaphylaxis risk factors?
Previous allergic reactions, atopy, asthma, and exposure to known allergens.
39
Why does anaphylaxis need rapid treatment?
It can progress rapidly to shock, respiratory failure, and death if untreated.
40
What long-term strategies help prevent anaphylaxis?
Allergen avoidance, desensitisation therapy, and carrying an adrenaline auto-injector.
41
What is the role of IL-4 in IgE production?
IL-4 promotes B-cell class switching to produce IgE antibodies.
42
Why is adrenaline given intramuscularly in anaphylaxis?
IM administration provides rapid absorption and onset of action.
43
What causes skin rashes and urticaria in anaphylaxis?
Histamine induces vasodilation and increased capillary permeability.
44
How does hypoxaemia occur during anaphylaxis?
Airway obstruction and bronchospasm limit oxygen delivery to alveoli.
45
How does anaphylaxis affect heart rate?
Tachycardia occurs due to compensatory sympathetic activation.
46
Why can anaphylaxis lead to unconsciousness?
Severe hypotension and hypoperfusion impair brain function.
47
How does adrenaline stabilise mast cells?
It reduces mediator release by acting on beta-2 receptors.
48
What are the emergency steps for suspected anaphylaxis?
Administer adrenaline, call emergency services, provide oxygen, and monitor vitals.
49
Why are beta-blockers risky in anaphylaxis?
They block adrenaline’s effects, reducing treatment efficacy.
50
How does leukotriene receptor antagonism benefit anaphylaxis patients?
It blocks leukotriene activity, reducing bronchoconstriction and inflammation.
51
What are the key features of asthma?
Asthma involves airway hyperresponsiveness, chronic inflammation, and reversible airflow obstruction.
52
How does airway remodelling occur in asthma?
It includes smooth muscle hypertrophy, goblet cell hyperplasia, and subepithelial fibrosis.
53
What immune cells are involved in asthma?
Mast cells, eosinophils, and Th2 lymphocytes mediate airway inflammation.
54
What triggers asthma symptoms?
Allergens, pollutants, cold air, and exercise can provoke bronchospasm and mucus production.
55
How does inhaled corticosteroid therapy work?
It reduces airway inflammation by suppressing pro-inflammatory mediators.
56
What are the pathophysiological features of COPD?
Irreversible airflow obstruction due to emphysema, chronic bronchitis, and airway inflammation.
57
What role does protease-antiprotease imbalance play in COPD?
Excess proteases degrade alveolar walls, causing emphysema.
58
How does smoking cause COPD?
It induces oxidative stress, neutrophilic inflammation, and tissue destruction.
59
What are the clinical differences between asthma and COPD?
Asthma has reversible airflow obstruction, while COPD is progressive and irreversible.
60
What is atherosclerosis?
Atherosclerosis is the accumulation of lipids, inflammatory cells, and fibrous tissue in arterial walls.
61
How do foam cells form in atherosclerosis?
LDL oxidation causes macrophages to engulf lipids, forming foam cells.
62
What are the consequences of atherosclerotic plaque rupture?
It can cause thrombosis, myocardial infarction, or stroke.
63
How does endothelial dysfunction contribute to atherosclerosis?
It promotes inflammation, leukocyte adhesion, and increased permeability.
64
What is pulmonary hypertension?
Elevated pulmonary arterial pressure leading to right ventricular hypertrophy and failure.
65
What causes pulmonary hypertension?
Endothelial dysfunction, vascular remodelling, and vasoconstriction.
66
How does pulmonary hypertension impact the heart?
It overloads the right ventricle, leading to hypertrophy, dilation, and heart failure.
67
What role do prostacyclin analogues play in pulmonary hypertension treatment?
They induce vasodilation and reduce pulmonary vascular resistance.
68
How do nitric oxide pathways influence pulmonary hypertension?
NO promotes vasodilation, and its deficiency contributes to elevated pressures.
69
What therapies are available for severe COPD?
Bronchodilators, corticosteroids, oxygen therapy, and pulmonary rehabilitation.
70
How does smoking cessation improve COPD outcomes?
It slows disease progression and reduces exacerbations.
71
What are the key symptoms of pulmonary hypertension?
Dyspnoea, fatigue, chest pain, and syncope.
72
What role does inflammation play in respiratory diseases?
Chronic inflammation causes airway damage, fibrosis, and mucus hypersecretion.
73
How are biologics used in asthma treatment?
They target IL-5, IL-4, and IgE to reduce eosinophilic inflammation.
74
What are the main goals of COPD management?
Symptom control, exacerbation prevention, and improving exercise tolerance.
75
What causes hypoxaemia in COPD?
Alveolar destruction and ventilation-perfusion mismatching reduce oxygen exchange.
76
What diagnostic tests confirm pulmonary hypertension?
Echocardiography, right heart catheterisation, and pulmonary function tests.
77
What lifestyle factors contribute to atherosclerosis?
Poor diet, smoking, obesity, and sedentary behaviour.
78
How does pulmonary vascular remodelling occur?
Proliferation of smooth muscle and endothelial cells thickens vessel walls.
79
What are the risk factors for COPD development?
Smoking, air pollution, occupational exposures, and genetic predisposition (e.g., alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency).
80
How does oxidative stress contribute to respiratory and cardiovascular disease?
It damages cellular structures, leading to inflammation, remodelling, and dysfunction.
81
What are the common comorbidities in COPD patients?
Cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and anxiety/depression.
82
How does hypertension accelerate atherosclerosis?
Increased pressure damages vessel walls, promoting plaque formation.
83
What is the impact of air pollution on respiratory diseases?
Pollutants trigger inflammation, airway narrowing, and exacerbations.
84
What medications are used to manage pulmonary hypertension?
Prostacyclins, endothelin receptor antagonists, and phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors.
85
How does asthma exacerbate in response to allergens?
Allergen exposure triggers IgE binding to mast cells, causing degranulation and bronchospasm.
86
What mechanisms lead to hyperinflation in COPD?
Air trapping due to collapsed airways and reduced elastic recoil of alveoli.
87
What is the effect of systemic corticosteroids in asthma exacerbations?
They rapidly reduce airway inflammation and improve airflow.
88
What role does IL-5 play in eosinophilic asthma?
IL-5 promotes eosinophil production and activation, contributing to airway inflammation.
89
How is pulmonary hypertension classified?
It is classified into primary (idiopathic) and secondary forms based on underlying cause.
90
How do statins help in cardiovascular disease?
They reduce LDL cholesterol levels and stabilise atherosclerotic plaques.
91
What diagnostic tests are used for COPD?
Spirometry, chest X-rays, and arterial blood gas analysis.
92
How does systemic inflammation link COPD and cardiovascular disease?
Chronic inflammation accelerates atherosclerosis and vascular damage.
93
Why are beta-agonists used in asthma treatment?
They relax airway smooth muscle, relieving bronchospasm.
94
What is the function of IL-4 in asthma?
It induces IgE production and Th2-mediated inflammation.
95
How does pulmonary hypertension lead to heart failure?
Right ventricular overload causes hypertrophy, dilation, and reduced output.
96
What therapies reduce inflammation in atherosclerosis?
Statins, anti-inflammatory agents, and lifestyle interventions.
97
How does air trapping occur in COPD?
Narrowed airways and loss of elastic recoil prevent complete exhalation.
98
What causes mucus hypersecretion in chronic bronchitis?
Goblet cell hyperplasia and increased mucus gland activity.
99
How does endothelial dysfunction initiate atherosclerosis?
Loss of NO production and increased permeability allow LDL infiltration.
100
What are the clinical signs of pulmonary hypertension?
Loud second heart sound, jugular venous distension, and peripheral oedema.
101
What is precision medicine?
Precision medicine customises treatments based on an individual’s genetic, molecular, and cellular profiles.
102
Why is precision medicine important?
It targets subpopulations within diseases, optimising treatment for patient-specific phenotypes.
103
What are organs-on-a-chip?
Microfluidic devices replicating organ-level functions for drug testing and disease modelling.
104
How can organs-on-a-chip reduce animal testing?
They allow disease simulations on human-like tissues, minimising animal model dependence.
105
What is the role of the electronic nose (eNose)?
It detects volatile organic compounds in exhaled breath to diagnose respiratory and metabolic diseases.
106
How does the iKnife improve surgical precision?
It analyses molecular signatures of tissues during surgery to differentiate healthy and diseased tissue.
107
How does 3D printing assist in patient-specific treatments?
It creates customised implants, prosthetics, and anatomical models.
108
How is 3D bioprinting advancing regenerative medicine?
It constructs tissue scaffolds and organ structures for transplantation and repair.
109
What environmental changes are predicted to reduce respiratory disease?
Decreased pollution in developed regions will lower cases of COPD and related illnesses.
110
What global disparities exist in pollution-related diseases?
Developing regions are expected to suffer prolonged pollution-related illnesses.
111
Why is obesity a growing concern for cardiovascular diseases?
Obesity increases risks for hypertension, diabetes, and atherosclerosis.
112
How does an ageing population sustain chronic disease prevalence?
Elderly patients often live with pre-existing cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
113
How do smart devices assist in monitoring patient health?
They collect real-time data on vitals, treatment adherence, and disease progression.
114
What risks arise with digital health tools and misinformation?
Social media and online misinformation may reduce treatment compliance.
115
How can AI improve precision medicine outcomes?
AI analyses large data sets to identify disease patterns and optimal treatment strategies.
116
What role do biosensors play in personalised medicine?
They measure biomarker levels for early diagnosis and treatment monitoring.
117
How can environmental policies improve cardiovascular health?
Reducing air pollution lowers risks for ischemic heart disease, stroke, and COPD.
118
What is the role of genomics in precision medicine?
Genomics analyses patient-specific genetic variations to predict treatment responses.
119
What challenges exist for implementing precision medicine?
High costs, data privacy concerns, and accessibility gaps in low-resource settings.
120
How does metabolomics contribute to future diagnostics?
It identifies metabolic changes linked to diseases, offering biomarkers for diagnosis.
121
What is telemedicine, and how does it impact care?
Remote healthcare delivery improves patient monitoring and access to care.
122
What are wearable devices, and how are they used?
Devices like smartwatches monitor physical activity, heart rate, and respiratory function.
123
How might robotic surgery advance future care?
Robotics enhance surgical precision, reducing complications and recovery times.
124
What are nanotechnologies in medicine?
125
What are nanotechnologies in medicine?
Nanoparticles deliver drugs precisely to target tissues, reducing systemic side effects.
126
How might AI assist in cardiovascular disease risk prediction?
AI algorithms analyse data to predict risk factors and recommend preventive interventions.
127
What future role do electronic implants have?
Implants monitor or regulate heart rhythms, blood glucose, and other physiological functions.
128
How do stem cells contribute to regenerative medicine?
Stem cells differentiate into specialised cells to repair damaged tissues.
129
What are CRISPR and gene editing technologies?
They edit genetic material to correct mutations causing inherited diseases.
130
What are smart inhalers, and how do they assist asthma patients?
They track medication usage and deliver optimised drug doses.
131
Why is global healthcare equity a concern for future technologies?
Advanced treatments remain inaccessible in low-resource settings, widening health disparities.
132
How does ageing affect heart and lung disease prevalence?
Age-related loss of function increases risks for heart failure, hypertension, and COPD.
133
What are bioengineered lungs?
Laboratory-grown lungs created using stem cells for transplantation.
134
What are some future trends for drug delivery systems?
Innovations include nanoparticle carriers and sustained-release systems for targeted delivery.
135
How can virtual reality (VR) be used in medical training?
VR simulates surgeries and procedures, providing a safe learning environment.
136
What is personalised nutrition, and how is it relevant?
Tailored dietary plans aim to reduce obesity and associated cardiovascular risks.
137
How will machine learning revolutionise medical imaging?
Algorithms improve image interpretation for early diagnosis of diseases.
138
How might exosome-based therapies treat lung disease?
Exosomes deliver therapeutic molecules to target injured tissues for repair.
139
What is the significance of global warming on respiratory health?
Higher pollution and allergens exacerbate conditions like asthma and COPD.
140
How does patient data contribute to precision medicine?
Genomic and clinical data inform customised therapies and research outcomes.
141
What ethical considerations arise with future medical technologies?
Issues include data privacy, equitable access, and consent for personalised interventions.
