Culture And Identity

Question 1

Marxist Culture - Summarise Adorno’s ‘false needs’

Answer 1

Adorno argues there are false needs pushed by the media and culture to participate in a consumerist society

Question 2

Marxist Culture - Summarise Marcuse’s thoughts on culture

Answer 2

Marcuse argued culture is dumbed down and advertising creates a ‘one-dimensional man’

Question 3

Marxist Culture - Define commodity fetishism

Answer 3

Commodity fetishism is when we value our relationship with material objects over our relationship with people

Question 4

Marxist Culture - what does the Frankfurt School argue?

Answer 4

Culture is used to benefit the ruling class as r/c confers higher status.

Question 5

Marxist Culture - what does Bordieu argue about high culture?

Answer 5

Bordieu argues that through learnt knowledge and appreciation of high culture the ruling class gain advantage and and access power and opportunities through things such as cultural capital.

Question 6

Neo Marxist Culture - Summarise Gramsci’s thoughts of Dual Consciousness

Answer 6

Gramsci refers to dominant, ruling class culture as Hegemony. He believes individuals in capitalist societies have dual consciousness: they see the world through capitalist ideology due to their socialisation, but their everyday experiences help them see through it. Therefore we have developed Dual Consciousness, we are able to see through our exploitation but are not given the push to revolt.

Question 7

Marxist Socialisation - How does Family socialise the w/c?

Answer 7

1) Zaretsky believes that family provides a ’safe haven’ for the w/c to take out anger caused by capitalist society and to ‘take the fight out’. Zaretsky also believes that family legitimises capitalist culture, and instills values such as obedience and respect.
2) The lower class won’t rebel against their exploitation as they’ve been socialised to accept capitalist ideology.

Question 8

Marxist Culture - How does Berstein’s ‘Restricted vs Elaborate Code** show how culture transmits ruling class ideology?

Answer 8

High culture is valued by the education system, which is often held by the middle/upper class. This creates an expectation of Elaborate/High Language and Culture being desired in society, isolating the Restricted/Low of the w/c.

Question 9

Marxist Socialisation - How does Religion socialise the w/c?

Answer 9

1) it promotes the idea that material success is a sign of god’s blessing, while poverty is due to wickedness or sin.
2) religious teachings emphasise blind faith to distract the poor from the extent of their exploitation by the bourgeoisie.
3) religion makes poverty, exploitation and inequality bearable because it promises that you will be rewarded in the afterlife if you accept religion.
4) it maintains false class consciousness and fatalism in the w/c

Question 10

Marxist Socialisation - How does Education socialise the w/c?

Answer 10

1) National Curriculum gives an illusion of fairness as everyone is learning the same thing, but we are socialised into picking particular courses/subjects through other factors such as gender roles or class differences, which impacts on the ability to equally achieve.
2) Althusser would argue that education is an ISA that socialises the w/c to accept hierarchy.
3) Bowles and Gintis would argue that the correspondence principle socialises passivity into w/c at an early age so they accept exploitation when in employment.

Question 11

Marxist Socialisation - How does Media socialise the w/c?

Answer 11

1) the media portrays the w/c as lazy which socialises fatalist values (Sugarman).
2) the media separates the w/c from each other by creating moral panics over certain groups, e.g GUMG research on the miners strike.
3) the media transmits consumerist ideology and promotes false needs (Adorno).
4) the media creates candyfloss culture, dumbed down and frivolous content to prevent the w/c from thinking critically about their exploitation.

Question 12

Functionalist Culture - Summarise Durkheim’s view of Culture

Answer 12

Durkheim argues that “Society is more important than the individual. Society exists before the individual is born into it and continues relatively undisturbed after the death of the individual.”. Durkheim suggests culture is a form of social glue which binds people together by promoting social solidarity and creating shared language and moral codes.

Question 13

Functionalist Culture - Summarise Parsons’ view of Culture

Answer 13

Parsons argues there are 4 Functional Prerequisites that society requires to run smoothy:
1) Goal Attainment - Culture sets goals for society
2) Adaption - Culture allows society to adjust
3) Integration - Culture includes everyone
4) Latency - Culture provides respite

Question 14

Functionalist Culture - Explain how Mechanical -> Organic Solidarity has impacted on culture

Answer 14

In a Pre-Industrial society, there were high levels of Mechanical Solidarity because people all felt the same, there was a culture surrounding doing what society wanted and individual identity was secondary to cultural conformity.

However, after the Industrial Revolution, there is now Organic Solidarity. People are now interdependent and each individual plays a role in their specialism. Therefore, our culture is much more individualised by factors such as our job, social media, education, leisure, etc, which integrates us into society as a whole.

Question 15

Functionalist Culture - Summarise the view that Culture should prevent Anomie

Answer 15

1) Functionalists believe SOME anomie is good as it allows for adaptation; but too much of it is bad.
2) Durkheim suggests there is more anomie in a modern society as industrialism has allowed for more choice.
3) Anomie can be controlled by creating shared culture and a sense of belonging .
4) We need boundary maintenance to reinforce value consensus and prevent anomie.

Question 16

Functionalist Socialisation - How does Family (Primary Socialisation) socialise?

Answer 16

1) Parsons seems family as a ’Personality Factory’, children are blank slates which parents must socialise into images of society.
2) Family socialises typical gender roles, men demonstrate typically masculine roles while women perform typically feminine roles, which children then internalise and perform these roles accordingly.
3) Family shapes mannerisms and values by instilling moral codes.

Question 17

Functionalist Socialisation - Summarise Anticipatory Socialisation

Answer 17

Anticipatory Socialisation is preparing someone to do something before they take on that role, such as a pregnant woman taking parenting classes. This allows for a smooth transition into the new role, providing slow adaptation and gradual change. This shows social mobility and meritocracy.

Question 18

Functionalist Socialisation - How does Religion socialise?

Answer 18

1) instills moral codes and values, e.g 10 commandments in Christianity.
2) Durkheim believes that religion is still relevant in modern society even if fewer people actively practice it.
3) used for political justification, e.g Roe vs Wade being revoked in 2022.
4) creates legislation, e.g divorce was more difficult before Family Law Act 1996.

Question 19

Functionalist Socialisation - How does Education (Secondary Socialisation) socialise?

Answer 19

1) Durkheim believes education teaches social solidarity through things such as uniform, lanyards, curriculum as everyone is doing the same thing.
2) Parsons would argue that education is a form of Anticipatory Socialisation for the world of work, as shown by his Bridge from particularistic to universalistic values.

Question 20

Feminist Culture - Feminists argue ‘Culture does not benefit all, mass culture benefits the patriarchy.’ - Apply this with examples

Answer 20

• sexualisation of women in mass culture, e.g male gaze, ‘Legs-It’ sexualised Nicola Sturgeon and Theresa May
• passive narratives in media, e.g damsel in distress stereotype or Disney princesses
• promotes beauty myth, e.g anti aging creams as a trend
• pop culture perpetuates women in the housewife role, e.g family guy or the simpsons

Question 21

Feminist Culture - What did McRobbie discover about magazines?

Answer 21

McRobbie found that magazines such as ‘Jackie’ encouraged girls to see romance and marriage as primary goals and to only see themselves in terms of how they are valued by males.

Question 22

Feminist Culture - What did Ferguson argue about magazines?

Answer 22

Ferguson referred to magazines as ‘apprentice manuals’ to teach women domestic skills centred around a ’cult of femininity’, which promoted as ideal for women to achieve through caring for family and the home. Ferguson argues while modern magazines are moving away from this, they still tend to focus on the home and ‘looking good for him’.

Question 23

Feminist Culture - Summarise the Radical Feminist view of culture

Answer 23

Radical Feminists argue that cultural products promote and legitimise violence against women.
1) Morgan argues that ”Porn is the theory, rape is the practice”, and that female suffering is legitimised by porn.
2) Video games such as GTA, Bioshock, promote violence against women and also using women for sex work.
3) Adverts promote a narrative of women as weak, e.g Yorkie Bar advert presents the product as ‘man fuel and man sized’.

Question 24

Feminist Culture - Summarise the Liberal Feminist view of culture

Answer 24

Liberal Feminists believe culture is more inclusive and now encourages choice.
1) Wilkinson argues there has been a ’genderquake’ representation of new strong and independent women.
2) Adverts for sanitary products have become frequent and are no longer shamed or stigmatised by media.
3) Educational policies such as GIST/WISE empowers girls in education.
4) There has been a rise in dual earner households and more gender equality in relationships, more stay at home dads or breadwinner mothers.

Question 25

Feminist Socialisation - How does Family (Primary Socialisation) socialise?

Answer 25

1) **Ann Oakley** developed Sex Role Theory, arguing that distinct gender roles emerge from culture/socialisation rather than biology. These roles are learned through childhood and continue into adulthood, often reinforcing male dominance and female subservience. 2) Gender and Social codes such as gendered colours, toys, language, or even McRobbie’s Bedroom Culture socialise children into adhering to gender roles at a young age.

Question 26

Feminist Socialisation - How does Education socialise?

Answer 26

1) **Sue Lees** found there were sexual double standards in education with girls as ‘slags’ and boys as ‘lads’ despite having the same sexual experience. 2) **Coffey and Delamont** found that male pupils and teachers often looked at female pupils sexually which made girls feel uncomfortable in a classroom environment 3) **Mitsos and Brown** argued girls are more likely to do coursework and therefore subjects are gendered.

Question 27

Feminist Socialisation - How does Media socialise?

Answer 27

1) promotes traditional domestic roles to girls, e.g Disney 2) **Morgans** Porn Theory Rape Practice shows how the media socialises and legitimises the exploitation of and violence against women 3) **Ferguson** and Apprentice Manuals 4) appeals to the Male Gaze, e.g Page 3

Question 28

Interactionist Culture - Summarise the idea that Culture is a social construct

Answer 28

1) Interactionists believe that we play an active role in creating culture rather than it being shaped by structural factors, so culture is shaped by people. 2) Interactionists believe we have created a ‘fictional universe’ to create shared meanings. Culture represents the ‘general store’ of shared meanings, which gives people a basis for constructive social interactions as they feel they have things in common. 3) Culture changes over time, e.g Xmas is now celebrated as part of British culture rather than a religious celebration.

Question 29

Interactionist Culture - Summarise Culture’s Influence on Identity

Answer 29

1) **Mead** and **Blumer** argue that social structures consist largely of roles. However, roles are not ‘straitjackets’, they are flexible and open to interpretation and change, e.g teachers will teach content in their own way. 2) They believe that “We Shape Us”.

Question 30

Interactionist Culture - Summarise Culture’s influence on Interaction Order

Answer 30

**Goffman** believes we have different interactions based on who it is. 1) **Civic Inattention** - We have a loose idea of our surroundings but we are inattentive to other people, we do not focus on people surrounding us and just walk forward. 2) **Individual Identification** - You know the person and know how to behave, you interact with shared language and symbols that differ based on how well you know the person. 3) **Categoric Identification** - You DONT know the person so you respond in a different way based on their characteristics, e.g you may simplify language when speaking to a child.

Question 31

Interactionist Socialisation - Summarise how individuals can be **resocialised**

Answer 31

- **Resocialisation** is the process of tearing down and rebuilding an individuals role and socially constructed sense of self in a deliberate and purposeful way. **Goffman** argues this is a ‘decision to play a different role.’ - Resocialisation shows individuals have agency and roles are not fixed but we ‘stop and start’.

Question 32

Interactionist Socialisation - Summarise Impression Management

Answer 32

1) Unwritten rules in society are learnt and known by all 2) **Goffman** argues this can be seen through the dramaturgical model, people try to assert their identity by giving impressions of themselves. 3) Impression management isn’t always successful, for example a person in a wheelchair may not wish to be seen primarily as disabled, but other people may continue to define them in terms of their impairment.

Question 33

Interactionist Socialisation - Summarise Perspective of Others

Answer 33

1) Our everyday interactions will differ as we modify our behaviour based on how we think others see us. 2) **Mead’s** ‘I’ (internal and authentic) and ‘Me’ (external) shows this as ‘Me’ changes depending on the situation or who you are with. 3) **Cooley’s** ‘Looking-Glass Self’ shows this ‘I am what I think you think I am’, a person will modify their behaviour based on cues from others, e.g an interviewer smiles at a candidate so the candidate believes they are acting how the interview wants and continues to act that way.

Question 34

Postmodernist Culture - What does **Lyotard** suggest?

Answer 34

**Lyotard** suggests there had been a decline of **metanarratives** and there is now no one shared culture as we reject the ‘grand stories’ of the past.

Question 35

Postmodernist Culture - Summarise Hybrid Culture and Identity

Answer 35

1) **Lyotard** argues people can choose what culture they wish to be a part of and develop **hybrid identities**. He argues we can resist the process of socialisation, as we no longer live in a society where one institution dictates culture and values. For example, Multicultural London English (MLE) is a dialect spoken by young, w/c Londoners who grew up in areas with high levels of immigration, it has roots in language spoken by Caribbean migrants who arrived in London after WW2, but has since become more widespread.

Question 36

Postmodernist Culture - Summarise Style over Substance (**Strinati**)

Answer 36

1) **Harvey** suggests that ‘image dominates narrative’ and we increasingly consume products for their brand/image rather than for their usefulness or any deeper values they may symbolise. 2) Objects have a loss of meaning and a higher value based on appearances.

Question 37

Postmodernist Culture - Sunmarise Hyperreality (**Baudrillard**)

Answer 37

**Baudrillard** suggests there is an inability to distinguish reality from a simulation of reality, e.g deepfakes. This can be seen through Japanese Hikikomori (‘Hermit Culture’) in which people do not leave their homes for years and only connect with others via technology.

Question 38

Summarise the Functionalist view of **Subcultures**

Answer 38

1) Functionalists see subcultures as a normal way of dealing with status frustration (**Cohen**) that arises from a long period of transition from childhood to independent adulthood. Subcultures provide ‘personality stability’ during the transition period. 2) **Parsons** argues subcultures are like a ‘warm bath’ and provides respite 3) Subcultures prevent anomie, and enable youth to create an identity separate from family, education or work.

Question 39

Summarise the Marxist view of **Subcultures**

Answer 39

1) **Brake** suggests that clothes and language that subcultures use show their disdain of capitalism and awareness of their position in it. This resistance is seen as ‘magical’ as it is a form of illusion of solving their problems, but this is not the case. Each generation of w/c youth faces similar problems simply in different situations, but they are generationally exploited by the ruling class. 2) **Hebdige** found that a lack of identifiable values was the main value of Punk culture. Hebdige saw punk subculture as a form of resistance to the experienced contradictions within ruling class ideology.

Question 40

Summarise the Interactionist view of **Subcultures**

Answer 40

1) **Cohen** argued that youth subcultures are provided by media stereotyping, exaggeration and distortion and are often represented as antisocial troublemakers. 2) Views youth subcultures as providing opportunities for individuals to resist mainstream societal norms and offer the possibility of social change.

Question 41

Summarise the Feminist view of **Subcultures**

Answer 41

1) **McRobbie** found that subcultures were male dominated as girls were less involved due to stricter parents and gender socialisation. 2) Girls subcultures and identities are formed through private spheres in the home, e.g bedroom culture. 3) **Holland** found that contemporary women are now more involved in subcultures outside of the home, spending higher percentages of their income on nights out.

Question 42

Summarise the Postmodernist view of **Subcultures**

Answer 42

1) Youth are no longer forming cohesive and fixed subcultures. Young people will mix and match from endless ranges of possibilities in a media saturated world.

Question 43

Class and Identity - How does being **Upper Class** shape identity?

Answer 43

- **Mooney** believes the r/c are ‘partially invisible’ due to their classist activities, such as private golf courses or personal swimming pools - **Mooney** also believes that a tie connotes status of a school and gives an impression of the person wearing it - private leisure and education - they operate ‘social closure’ such as gated communities or country clubs - **Bernstein’s** Elaborate Code - **Bordieu’s** Cultural Capital

Question 44

Class and Identity - How does being **Middle Class** shape identity?

Answer 44

- **Savage** believes there are 4 M/C identities: 1) professionals - individuals who have had long and successful careers/education and value cultural assets, such as doctors or lawyers. 2) managers - generally less qualified and have worked their way up, they usually define their identity from standard of living and leisure. 3) self employed - very individualistic people who have faith in hard work and discipline. 4) clerical/white collar - traditionally seen as m/c due to superior pay and working conditions, but due to advancements in technology they are not more similar to w/c.

Question 45

Class and Identity - How does being **Working Class** shape identity?

Answer 45

- **Sugarmann** believes there are 4 w/c values (fatalism, collectivism, present time orientation and immediate gratification). - **Skeggs** argued media represents w/c as immoral, lazy and uncultured. Skeggs argued that w/c women try to distance themselves from this perceived representation by putting effort into the presentation of their home. - The New Statesman Video on the Cost Of Living Crisis belittles w/c problems by suggesting they should simply ‘get a better job’, ‘get off benefits’, and ‘make elderly relatives live in garden sheds’.

Question 46

Class and Identity - How does being **Underclass** shape identity?

Answer 46

- **Cohen** argues the underclass are represented by the media as ‘freaks to be mocked’. - **Morris** argued that underclass identity and culture revolves around being workshy, feckless, anti education and authority, immoral and welfare dependent. - **Charlesworth** believes the underclass are often misunderstood by other social classes because they devalue themselves and have a negative self identity due to poor experiences of education, restricting their ambitions to being disappointed in life and turning to drink/drugs as a form of compensation.

Question 47

Class and Identity - Summarise the declining importance of Class Identity

Answer 47

- **Clarke and Saunders** argue social class is decking as a source of identity as classes are becoming fragmented into a range of different groups, and are being replaced by a range of other influences of identity including gender, religion and ethnicity. - **Savage** believed contemporary society saw themselves as ‘outside’ of class. - **Crook, Paluski and Walters** believe there have been a blurring of lines between classes due to technology.

Question 48

Gender and Identity - How does **Family** shape identity?

Answer 48

1) **Oakley** suggests gender role socialisation occurs through manipulation (encouraging gender appropriate behaviour), canalisation (gender appropriate toys and activities), domestic activities (encouraging girls into chores) and verbal appellations (nicknames that reinforce gender expectations). 2) **Bott** found that women take on the majority of domestic responsibilities, even if they are employed outside the house. 3) **Hakim** found that girls are more likely to be socialised to prioritise family over professional aspirations, while boys are more likely to be encouraged into careers. 4) **Dobash and Dobash** found that women were subjected to stricter control over their movements, social interactions and activities. 5) **Francis** found that women’s identities often become entwined with their roles as wives and mothers, leading to a loss of independence and identity. 6) **Statham** found that women’s economic dependence on men further entrenched gender inequality as they are unable to make autonomous choices and impacts their education and employment opportunities.

Question 49

Gender and Identity - How does **Education** shape identity?

Answer 49

1) **Heaton and Lawson** argued that the hidden curriculum taught patriarchal values in schools and promoted traditional family structures in textbooks. 2) **Francis** argued the hidden curriculum reflected traditional gender norms. 3) **Gilborn and Youdell** suggest that boys often receive more criticism than girls which can affect their self esteem and motivation, while girls often receive praise for their neatness, behaviour and effort rather than their intellectual capabilities.

Question 50

Gender and Identity - How does **Media** shape identity?

Answer 50

1) **Wolf** suggests that the image of women in media present women as sex objects to be consumed by the Male Gaze (**Mulvey**) 2) **Easthope** argues that media transmits the view that masculinity is based on violence, aggression, competition and is biologically determined so is a natural goal to aim for, which then causes frustration when most men are unable to achieve this hegemonic masculinity. 3) **Tuchman** developed **symbolic annihilation** to refer to the underrepresentation of women in a narrow range of social roles, while men were represented in a range of social and occupational roles.

Question 51

Gender and Identity - Summarise the declining importance of Gender and Identity

Answer 51

- metrosexual man presents move away from toxic hegemonic masculinity - **Sharpe’s** repeat study found girls priorities have changed and they place more importance on career and education rather than family and love - more women in workplace - **Wilkinson’s** ‘genderquake’ presents a new media image of strong and independent women

Question 52

Ethnicity and Identity - How does **Language** shape identity?

Answer 52

1) **Song** found that there was a crucial role of the ‘Mother Tongue’ in Chinese families and raised EMG to be bilingual. 2) **Johal** found that 2nd/3rd generation British Asians ‘**code-switched**’ by selecting aspects of their culture and mixing it with aspects of dominant culture to create a dual identity.

Question 53

Ethnicity and Identity - How does **Discrimination** shape identity?

Answer 53

1) Symbolic Annihilation of EMGs in media such as **Hall’s** Black Mugger, COVID-19 being referred to as the ‘Chinavirus’ or **Akinti’s** Black news is Bad news. 2) Discrimination in the world of work, **Rex’s** CV study with Evan’s and Patel.

Question 54

Ethnicity and Identity - How does **Symbols** shape identity?

Answer 54

1) **Alexander** argued that Black youth felt there were ‘symbolic markers’ of being black such as dress or religious symbols. 2) **Madood** found that Black peoole regarded skin colour as a sign of identity.

Question 55

Ethnicity and Identity - Summarise the declining importance of Ethnicity and Identity

Answer 55

- **Cashmore** identified rap music as the ultimate form of **Hybrid Culture** as artists such as NWA has enabled the evolution of the genre into white culture - **Hewitt** studied deprived white w/c youth who inhibited an ‘invisible culture’ and felt a deep sense of unfairness because every culture was celebrated except their own - **Hall** argues that society is moving to a ‘post-ethnic’ society where ethnicity no longer shapes identity

Question 56

Nationality and Identity - Summarise views on British Identity

Answer 56

1) **Gulbernau and Goldblatt** argue that no case can be made for a single, original, authentic group of Britons. 2) Until the 1707 Act of Union there was no British National Identity. 3) Many Brits see their National identity as primarily tied to their country/region of origin. 4) **Anderson** argues that National Identity is imaginary.

Question 57

Nationality and Identity - Summarise Functionalist views

Answer 57

1) Shared national identity leads to a feeling of social solidarity and togetherness 2) Patriotism honours British history

Question 58

Nationality and Identity - Summarise Marxist views

Answer 58

1) By promoting National unity the bourgeoisie can distract the w/c from their exploitation and prevent them from uniting against their oppressors.

Question 59

Nationality and Identity - Summarise Feminist views

Answer 59

1) National identity marginalises women by prioritising male experiences and contributions, for example when men go to war there is less focus on female war experiences.