Mass Media

Question 1

List the Key Features of New Media

Answer 1

1) Convergence - One device can be used to access a wide variety of media
2) Interactivity - New Media often more interaction than old media
3) Audience/User Power - Interactivity gives more power to the audience
4) Accessibility - New Media is free media, people have the devices and therefore the instant access to a vast array of media content

Question 2

Summarise the Neophilliac view towards the New Media

Answer 2

1) Widening Consumer Choice - Due to media saturation there is greater competition between companies which leads to better quality products for consumers
2) More Media Participation - Citizen journalism, blogging, digital TV all give consumers more opportunities to participate in using/producing media content
3) Greater Democracy - Media provides main source of political knowledge to educate us and provides opportunities for people to acquire the education needed to play an active role in democratic societies
4) Easily Accessible - Global library allows everyone to have access to global information and cultural differences so high culture is no longer limited to the elite
5) Global Village - New Media allows people from around the world to connect and interact instantaneously which promotes a new global village that values cultural diversity
6) E-commerce Revolution - Online retailers such as Amazon have been great economic successes and have undermined physical sales of media products such as films or books so consumers have more choice

Question 3

Summarise the Cultural Pessimist view towards the New Media

Answer 3

1) No Real Consumer Choice - All media is the same: poor quality media which dumbs down anything that encourages critical thinking and promotes consumerism/false needs
2) Digital Divide - The New Media creates national and global inequalities as not everyone can access new technology; those who cannot access the internet often have the most genuine political grievances
3) Threat To Democracy - New Media enhances the power of the bourgeoisie and we receive false news
4) Lack Of Regulation - It is difficult to regulate the internet due to its size and speed, so things such as radicalisation, internet crime, pornography, violence, etc can thrive unchecked
5) Cultural Imperialism - The spreading of Western culture undermines and destructs local cultures
6) Increased Surveillance - Cornford and Robins argue that while new technologies do promote choice, many companies sell products and services to engage in surveillance, e.g Facebook using cookies to target advertising
7) Inaccurate Information - Growing prevalence of fake news on the internet such as Wikipedia being able to be amended by anyone

Question 4

Gender - How are Males represented in the media?

Answer 4

1) the research group Children Now found that the hegemonic representations of masculinity dominant in media were:
• violent
• leaders and problem solvers
• funny, confident, successful
• rarely crying or vulnerable
• usually shown in the workplace
2) Easthope found 6 stereotypes of masculinity in media
• a joker - using laugher to avoid displaying emotion
• a jock - aggressive to win respect
• strong silent - in control and unemotional
• big shot - economically and socially successful
• action hero - strong and violent
• buffoon - has good intentions but is completely hopeless with domestic or parental matters
3) However, Gauntlett suggests there is a new media portrayal of the Metrosexual Man who is considerate, fashionable, funny, capable and secure in his masculinity while encouraging men to understand women

Question 5

Gender - How are Females represented in the New Media?

Answer 5

1) Tuchman argues there is a Symbolic Annihilation of women in media as they are often ignored or minimised and their achievements/interests are trivialised and devalued.
2) Ferguson argued teenage girl magazines prepared girls for traditionally feminine roles and generated a cult of femininity which socialised girls into stereotyped values and roles which were reflected in the magazines.
3) Wolf focused on how the media represents women as sex objects and perpetuates a beauty myth through advertising cosmetics and products to improve appearance for the male gaze. The media even objectifies women in power, for example ‘Legs-It’ sexualising Nicola Sturgeon and Theresa May.
4) Women face a glass ceiling in media industries which disallows them from being involved in the shaping of media content, however, Lauzen found that women now account for 27% of executive roles in the media industry.
5) However, Wilkinson argues there has been a genderquake in the media which encourages the portrayal of a strong and independent ‘new woman’

Question 6

Sexuality - How are Heterosexual Females represented in the New Media?

Answer 6

• Sexuality is a central part of hegemonic femininity as British women have been largely defined in the media by their physical attractiveness and have long been subject to the Male Gaze
• Batchelor et al found that contraception was represented as a female responsibility. Female characters discussed sex and worries about pregnancy with their friends while men boasted about their sexual prowess. Girls were portrayed as more interested in emotions while men were more interested in sex.

Question 7

Sexuality - How are Heterosexual Males represented in the New Media?

Answer 7

• Men are increasingly being represented as sexual objects, through the increase of male cosmetics and the representation of the metrosexual man.
• McRobbie argues men’s bodies are increasingly sexualised in advertising and women have become active viewers.

Question 8

Sexuality - How is Homosexuality represented in the New Media?

Answer 8

• Dyer argues that is someone is homosexual, it is not obvious: therefore, the media make the invisible visible through placing emphasis on signs and symbols of homosexuality such as speech patterns and stances
• Craig identifies 3 common media representations of homosexuality
  • Camp - homosexual individuals represented as flamboyant and non-threatening, one of the most widely used gay representations
  • Macho - exaggeration of masculinity through being openly sexual and erotic, it is regarded as threatening towards men by subverting traditional masculinity
  • Deviant - gay characters entirely defined by their sexuality portrayed as evil or devious
• Tuchman states lesbians have been symbolically annihilated from media
• Stonewall found that in TV programmed there were rare references to lesbians, bisexuals and transsexuals.
• Gill suggests that to avoid the risk of offending heterosexual audiences/advertisers, mainstream media only represents gay sexuality in a sanitised way: they appear mainly as stylish attractive figures with beautiful bodies rather than in sexual manners. Gill also suggest the opposite applies to lesbians who are not represented unless it is in a highly sexualised manner.

Question 9

Age - How is Childhood represented in the New Media?

Answer 9

• Heintz-Knowles found children are often portrayed as motivated by peer relationships, sports, and romance.
• Content Analysis of Media suggests there are 8 stereotypes of children frequently used by the media:
  • Cute - babies and toddlers are represented as being cute and appealing
  • Consumers - Chandler talks about pester power: companies know children are likely to ask their parents for products and therefore advertise products/toys/experiences/etc directly to children
  • Little Angels - children represented in an idealist way, innocent and without malice
  • Little Devils - children are represented as cheeky monkeys or worse, but these representations are still quite positive, e.g Bart Simpson is naughty, but funny and appealing
  • Victims - of kidnapping, murder, etc
  • Accessories - of their parents/guardians
  • Prodigies - children in the media are often brilliant at something, such as maths or a musical instrument, e.g young Sheldon
  • Modern - media focuses on how children ‘these days’ know much more at their age than previous generations of children

Question 10

Age - How is Youth represented in the New Media?

Answer 10

• Cohen coined the term Moral Panics in relation to rival youth subcultures (Mods and Rockers). Cohen explained the youths were turned into Folk Devils and many subsequent moral panics have focused on youth culture such as punks and hoodies
• Wayne found that the media delivers a one-dimensional picture of youth that encourages fear and condemnation rather than understanding to distract from real problems young people face in a modern world

Question 11

Age - How is The Elderly represented in the New Media?

Answer 11

• Lee noted that older adults in advertisements were generally positively represented as healthy, active people with a range of interests enjoying a ‘golden age’
• Often elderly people are portrayed as a burden, with the aging population often discussed in current affairs as a problem
• Elderly are often represented as demented or confused, often in a comedic way, from being mildly muddled to suffering from dementia
• Elderly are sometimes represented as enjoying a ‘second childhood’, enjoying activities they did not experience when they were younger

Question 12

Disability - How are Disabled Individuals represented by the New Media?

Answer 12

• Barnes identified 10 media stereotypes of disabled people:
  • pitiable or pathetic - treating disabled people as objects of charity, e.g children in need
  • object of curiosity - added to storylines to enhance a certain atmosphere
  • object of violence - as victims
  • sinister or evil - one of the most persistent stereotypes, e.g Frankenstein’s monster
  • super cripple - brave and courageous, e.g 2016 Paralympic’s SuperHuman
  • object of ridicule - portrayed as a fool
  • their own worst enemy - full of self pity and unable to overcome obstacles
  • a burden - helpless and needing care
  • non sexual - disabled people are sexually dead, e.g the undateables
  • unable to participate in daily life - disabled people and their routines are seldom represented as a normal part of daily life
• Shakespeare argues the media representations of disabled people are crude, one-dimensional and simplistic, and are often used as a character trait or plot device

Question 13

Ethnicity - How are Black and Asian ethnic groups represented by the New Media?

Answer 13

• Akinti argues ‘black news is bad news’, news coverage of EMG focuses on issues such as crime or underachievement, while ignoring cultural and societal contributions of a black audience.
• Van Dijk found that black crime is the most frequent issues found in news covers of EMGs.
• Watson notes that moral panics stem from the media stereotyping black people as criminals, e.g Hall’s Black Mugger stereotype
• Moore found that over 1/3 of representations of Islam focused on terrorism, and that EMGs are often portrayed as an economic threat to Britain’s ‘generous welfare system’
• Asian culture is represented as ‘abnormal’. Ameli et al found that media suggests the wearing of the hijab as inferior to western female dress
• The GUMG found that Black and Asian people were more likely to appear as temporary/supporting guests than as hosts of shows

Question 14

Ethnicity - How are Eastern European ethnic groups represented by the New Media?

Answer 14

• Dowling suggested that in the 2000s, Eastern European immigrants were being attacked and blamed in the media for being benefit scrounges and lone parents, taking British jobs, groping woman, drunk driving and a range of other issues.

Question 15

Social Class - How are Working Class represented by the New Media?

Answer 15

1) Dumb and Stupid - Curran and Seaton note that newspapers aimed at w/c audiences assume they are uninterested in serious analysis of political/social issues and political debate is often reduced to a conflict of personalities
2) Troublesome and Source of Conflict - w/c people are often presented as a source of trouble, they tend to be welfare scroungers who can’t control their children, e.g Shameless. Neo-Marxists may see this as the media acting against groups who challenge the dominant ideology
3) Idealised W/C Communities - w/c are portrayed as hardworking and struggling to overcome adversity in their lives, in close-knit communities. Films such as I, Daniel Blake have portrayed w/c issues in a realistic and supportive way.
4) White Trash/Chavs - Lawler argues the media vilify and stigmatise what they depict as a peasant w/c, symbolised by typical forms of appearance such as tracksuits, drug use, anti-social behaviour, etc, e.g The Jeremy Kyle show. Hayward and Yar add that the label of ‘chav’ is used by newspapers as a familiar term for the abuse of young people

Question 16

Social Class - How is The Underclass represented by the New Media?

Answer 16

• McKendrick argued coverage of poverty in the UK is marginal and the causes/consequences of poverty are rarely explored in media
• Cohen argues the UK mass media is concerned about representing the good fortune of British Capitalism and pays less attention to its ‘casualties’. The media is useless at realistically reporting on the plight of the poor and media reinforces the view that the poor are poor due to their own faults.
• Newman argues the underclass are often portrayed as a statistic rather than an actual person

Question 17

Social Class - How is the Middle Class represented by the New Media?

Answer 17

• The m/c is represented as overly positive and concerned with manners, decency and social respectability.
• The m/c are catered for in the media as there is focus on issues that interest the m/c such as tax issues and create moral panics on lower classes or social issues such as immigration
• The m/c are often depicted as living in nuclear families

Question 18

Social Class - How is the Upper Class represented by the New Media?

Answer 18

• The u/c are rarely criticised for their wealth and media representations rarely focus on the inequalities of capitalism
• The u/c are often portrayed as eccentric and idealised, and represented as ‘well-bred’ and economically superior, e.g shows such as Downton Abbey

Question 19

Social Class - How is The Monarchy represented by the New Media?

Answer 19

• Nairn notes that since WW2, the media has represented the monarchy as a ‘Royal Family’, reflected in media coverage that focuses positively on every trivial detail of their lives
• Coverage of the monarchy is rarely critical and encourages praise of them
• Royal events are global events and garner interest from a global audience
• Instances where the royal family are criticised are quickly forgotten and replaced by other news

Question 20

Media Models - Summarise the Hypodermic Syringe Model

Answer 20

• suggests the audience is PASSIVE, there is a direct correlation between media violence and IRL violence as audience behaviour is immediately influenced
  • Imitation - copying violent behaviour seen in media
  • Disinhibition - thinking violence is a normal way to handle situations
  • Desensitisation - no longer being affected by online violence due to seeing it so much
• e.g Bandura Bobo Doll
• McCabe and Martin concluded media violence caused disinhibition and that discussions can be replaced with violence without repercussions

Question 21

Media Models - Summarise the Uses and Gratifications Model (Blumer and McQuail)

Answer 21

• suggests audiences are ACTIVE, they actively use media to fufill particular needs
  • Diversion - people use media to make up for a lack of satisfaction in their daily lives
  • Personal Relationships - people use media to feel part of a community
  • Personal Identity - people use the media to modify their identity, e.g social media portrayal present a specific version of someone’s life
  • Surveillance - people use the media to obtain information, follow the news and enables them to make up their mind on particular issues

Question 22

Media Models - Summarise the Cultural Effects Model (Marxist)

Answer 22

• suggests the audience is PASSIVE, they mindlessly internalise capitalist ideology over a period of time
• Marxists believe through a purposeful ‘dumbing down’ of media content, the bourgeoisie transmits ruling class ideology through the ‘drip-drip’ form.
• serious programmes such as the news which encourage critical thinking have slowly declined while frivolous content such as reality TV has slowly increased

Question 23

Media Models - Summarise the Two-Step Flow Model (Katz and Lazarsfeld)

Answer 23

• suggests the audience is SOMEWHAT ACTIVE, as they choose to engage with the opinion leader’s interpretation, but then passively follow their lead
• the media content must go through two stages:
  1) The Opinion Leader is exposed to the content
  2) Others in the network internalise the opinion leader’s interpretation of that content

Question 24

Media Models - Summarise the Selective Filter Model (Klapper)

Answer 24

• suggests the audience is ACTIVE as they are actively choose which media messages to access, engage and retain
• Klapper suggests there are 3 filters media messages must pass through in order to be effective:
  1) Selective Exposure - the audience must choose to view, read or listen to the media content
  2) Selective Perception - the audience has to take notice of the media content
  3) Selective Retention - the messages have to ‘stick’ in the minds of those who have accessed the content, and research indicates people have a tendency to remember things they broadly agree with

Question 25

Media Models - Summarise the **Reception Analysis Model**

Answer 25

- suggests the audience is **ACTIVE**, audiences act in a variety of subcultural ways and media content is polysemic (open to a variety of interpretations) - **Morley** suggested there are 3 readings of media content: 1) Preferred/Dominant - people interpret the texts as the producers intended and decode their message as it is widely accepted as legitimate 2) Oppositional Reading - audiences reject the preferred reading 3) Negotiated Reading - audiences generally accept the preferred reading but may reinterpret the media content to align with their own opinions and values

Question 26

Ownership and Control - Summarise the **Marxist** view of Ownership and Control

Answer 26

1) Media is the **Opium Of The People** - it numbs and distracts us from the problems of daily life. The phrase ‘bread and circuses’ is used to describe superficial entertainment which keeps the population distracted, docile and ignorant. 2) Owners control the media - owners have a direct say in the content of media products. **Curran** found evidence of owners directly manipulating media content. 3) The media is an **Ideological State Apparatus** - it controls how people think 4) Regulatory Favours - **Turnstall and Palmer** argue owners have close relationships with powerful people and can perform regulatory favours to provide positive coverage, e.g Tony Blair flew to Australia to meet with Rupert Murdoch and recieved positive coverage from the Sun.

Question 27

Ownership and Control - Summarise the **Neo-Marxist** view of Ownership and Control

Answer 27

1) Journalists control the media - they do not purposely create content which favours the ruling class but this is an accidental by-product of their upbringing as most journalists are from m/c backgrounds. **The GUMG** found the vast majority of journalists were white, middle-upper class men. 2) Economic Pressures - media content is controlled by financial pressures so will create content which is going to make a profit. 3) **Agenda Setting** - Journalists have the power to set the agenda, they can include stories which they see as important and what we consider current affairs is defined by journalists. 4) Journalists are part of **The Establishment** - **Jones** suggests journalists are part of an alliance of unaccountable powerful groups ‘bound together by common economic interests and a shared set of mentalities’ and that journalists will convey the values of the ruling class in order to remain part of this alliance.

Question 28

Ownership and Control - Summarise the **Pluralist** view of Ownership and Control

Answer 28

1) **Market Mechanism** - if audiences don’t enjoy the content the media is putting out, they will simply stop engaging with it. Therefore, the audience demands and the media supplies, as if audiences do not engage with media products the media will not continue to produce it. The media is a democratic mirror as it reflects what the audience sees as important. Citizen journalism is increasingly important as a source of information. 2) **Concentration of Ownership** is good for consumers - big companies will attempt to out-do each other in order to maintain customer engagement, therefore they will produce higher quality content and offer better value for money in order to attract customers. 3) Regulatory Bodies - Regulatory Bodies such as OFCOM ensure media content meets ethical standards, therefore the media cannot be overtly ideological as Marxists suggest. 4) Journalists are the Voice of the People - Journalists are highly trained, impartial and their reporting simply reflects public sentiment on certain issues. They are bound by codes of ethical conduct.

Question 29

Ownership and Control - Summarise the **Postmodern** view of Ownership and Control

Answer 29

1) Media Saturation - choice is greater than ever, in a media saturated society people are exposed to media messages constantly, and therefore it is impossible for the owners or editors to control what is out there. 2) Hyperreality - **Baudrillard** argues in a media saturated society there are multiple versions of reality that has undermined the power of truth and objectivity. 3) Polysemic - **Trowler** argues media messages in postmodern society are polysemic as they can be interpreted in multiple ways 4) Ownership of the media is **Fluid** - **Levene** argues the gap between producer and audience has been so eroded that people can easily reject hegemonic messages from the powerful to create their own narratives, e.g platforms such as Twitter can be used to put across their own narratives and subsequently influence ‘official’ narratives

Question 30

Selection and Presentation - Summarise the **Selection** of the News

Answer 30

Gatekeepers are those who decide what to publish. News selection is based on 3 influences: 1) News Values • extraordinariness • threshold/scale • easy to understand • reference to elite persons • reference to elite nations • personalisation • frequency • continuity • negativity • composition 2) Organisational Constraints - cost, space, deadlines, journalist ethics, etc 3) Ownership of the Media

Question 31

Selection and Presentation - Summarise the **Presentation** of the News

Answer 31

- **Chandler** argues TV is the window of the world. News Readers will remain neutral, make eye contact, have authoritative body language, be friendly and reassuring, and be set in a high tech studio to give the impression of professionalism, for example the BBC.

Question 32

Selection and Presentation - Summarise the **Marxist** of Selection and Presentation

Answer 32

1) **Moral Panics** - Links to media as an ISA. Media owners create moral panics about particular groups to divert from problems in society created by the ruling class. 2) **Spin Doctors** - People whose job is to portray/spin events in a particular way. For example, individuals such as Alistair Campbell or Dominic Cummings are spin doctors for the government and purposely present the news in a particular way with the goal of swaying public opinion. 3) **Gatekeeping** - Owners are gatekeepers and directly decide what is selected as news.

Question 33

Selection and Presentation - Summarise the **Neo-Marxist** of Selection and Presentation

Answer 33

1) **News Values** - Journalists are concerned with making profit and so adhere to the news values in order to maximise sales 2) **Organisational Constraints** - Journalists are restricted in what they are able to report on. This leads to **Churnalism** (news articles produced using information which is already public, often without being fact checked). **Davies** found that 80% of stories in the main UK daily newspapers were constructed using churnalism. 3) Journalists want to remain part of **The Establishment** - therefore they will not express radical views that go against the Establishment. **Hall** argues journalists view the opinions of primary refiners (experts such as politicians or doctors) as more important that those of ordinary people. 4) Journalists **Socialisation** - Journalists are often m/c and therefore will express m/c values. **Fiske** argued that journalists often portray trade unions as ‘greedy and demanding’ while managements are portrayed as cooperating with the unions unrealistic demands.

Question 34

Selection and Presentation - Summarise the **Pluralist** of Selection and Presentation

Answer 34

1) Market Mechanism - the media will present to the audience what the audience wishes to see. 2) Media outlets present a diverse range of perspectives 3) Journalists have ethics and this impacts the presentation of the news by ensuring impartiality 4) Regulatory bodies help to control the presentation on the news

Question 35

Globalisation and Postmodernism - Summarise the **Hyperglobalist** argument

Answer 35

1) We shape our identities using media • **Strinati** argues the distinction between high and pop culture has become blurred, leading to increased consumer choice as the two assimilate. 2) The growth of media has led to a **Participatory Culture** (Jenks) • This empowers audiences and allows communities to engage in new forms of connection 3) We can reject **Metanarratives** • Due to the sheer diversity of media output, there is no single and absolute truth. All points of view have some value and all ways of looking at the world are relative. 4) Cultural Hybridity • **Thompson** argues global media products are modified by local cultures to result in new hybrid forms, such as Bollywood • Culture moved in multidirectional flows, not just from West to East, for example Bollywood Stars crossing over into Western Culture 5) Globalisation of Protest • **Spencer-Thomas** conducted an analysis of protests against military violence in Burma and found these protests received very little media attention in 1998. However, by 2007 and smartphones had been introduced into the country, the protests had achieved widespread global media coverage.

Question 36

Globalisation and Postmodernism - Summarise the **Cultural Pessimist** argument

Answer 36

1) Hyperreality • **Baudrillard** argues we live in a media saturated society where we are bombarded with **simulacra** (artificial images or reproductions), which makes it impossible to distinguish between what is real and what isn’t. 2) Consumerism • **Strinati** argues the media creates pressure to consume certain products in line with trends so we don’t actually have that much choice. 3) Death Of The Social (**Garrod**) • Physical communities are in decline as a result of people interacting so much online 4) Cultural Imperialism (**Fenton**) • **Ritzer** argues the concept of **McDonaldisation**: the idea that an impact of globalisation is that the world is becoming more standardised and low skilled like McDonald’s. • **Klein** coined **Cultural Homogenisation** as the idea that local cultures are killed off by globalisation and the whole world becomes the same