Cultures Flashcards
(83 cards)
1
Q
Define culture
A
- Over 200 definitions
- Complex whole consisting of capabilities and habits acquired as a member of a society (Tylor, 1871)
- Collective phenomenon (Hofstede, 1991)
- Communicated from one generation to the next (Matmumoto, 1996)
- Shared way of life of a group of people (Berry et al., 2002)
2
Q
Hofstede’s Onion Diagram
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- Symbols
- Heroes
- Rituals
- Practices make up points 1, 2, 3
- Values (at the core)
3
Q
Hall’s Iceberg Model
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Surface culture: Behaviors & customs
Deep culture: Attitudes & beliefs; core values
4
Q
Etic
A
Outside
5
Q
Emic
A
Inside
6
Q
Cross-cultural psychology
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Culture as antecedent to behaviour; emphasis on identifying universal processes (derived etic)
7
Q
Ways of research in culture
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- Psychological and process variables
- Background variables
8
Q
What is ecological fallacy?
A
- Assuming relationship at one level proves something on a different level of analysis
- Culture-level characterization used to explain relationship at a more familiar individual-level
- Robinson (1950) immigrants and illiteracy findings
9
Q
WEIRD
A
White Educated Industrialized Rich Democratic
10
Q
Hofstede 6-D Model
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- Individualism vs. Collectivism
- Power distance
- Masculinity vs. Femininity
- Uncertainty avoidance
- Long-term vs. Short-term orientation
- Indulgence vs. Restraint
11
Q
Schwartz Individual Level Values
A
- Universalism
- Benevolence
- Conformity
- Tradition
- Security
- Power
- Achievement
- Hedonism
- Stimulation
- Self direction
Links to: Self-transcendence, conservation, self enhancement and openness to change
12
Q
Schwartz Cultural Level Values
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- Autonomy vs. Embeddedness
- Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchy
- Harmony vs. Mastery
13
Q
Inglehart-Welzel’s Dimensions of Cultural Values
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- Traditional vs. Secular-rational
2. Survival vs. Self-expression
14
Q
Two cultural change hypothesis
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- Scarcity
2. Socialization
15
Q
Common theme in the three value theories/models
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- Individualism
- Autonomy
- Self-expression
16
Q
Multiple selves (William James)
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Current, past, possible
17
Q
Key differences in self-construals
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- Structure
- Important features
- Tasks
- Role of others
- Basis of self-esteem
18
Q
Two self-construal
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- Independent
2. Interdependent
19
Q
How is self-construal a mediator of cultural differences?
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Cultural context > Self-construal > Cognition + Emotion + Motivation
20
Q
Beyond East-West Dichotomy (Vignoles)
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- Difference vs. similarity
- Self-containment vs. connection to others
- Self-direction vs. receptiveness to influence
- Self-reliance vs. dependence on others
- Consistency vs. variability
- Self-expression vs. harmony
- Self-interest vs. commitment to others
21
Q
Cultural differences in self-esteem
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Generally high global self-esteem but more positive self-evaluations in Western
22
Q
Emotions: Physiological responses
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Universality for bodily mapping of emotions
23
Q
Emotions: Frequency
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Consistent finding that Asian cultures report less pleasant and more negative emotion than North Americans
24
Q
Why are there differences in frequency of emotions across cultures?
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Culture norm hypothesis, mixed emotions, affect scales
25
Evidence for universality of basic emotion experience and expression
- Pan cultural elements in facial displays (Ekman et al., 1969)
- Expressions in athletes, including blind ones (Matsumoto & Willingham, 2006)
26
Emotion recognition
Cross-cultural recognition but in-group advantage
27
Display rules of emotion
Alignment of emotions with cultural values, ideals, goals and concerns
28
Five-factor theory of personality
```
Openness
Conscientious
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Neuroticism
```
29
Hofstede's hypothesis for personality and culture
Could be that culture is socialising its members to express their genetic predispositions in acceptable ways
30
Personality findings in Germany
Past East and West similar in personality, except openness was lower and modesty was higher in East
31
Geography of personality
Grouping in relation to geographical closeness showcases similar personality profiles
32
Regional Personality Differences In Great Britain (Rentfrow et al., 2015)
- PESH outcomes (political, economic, social, health)
- Distinct geographical clusters
- Similarities within neighboring regions
- E.g. Oxford, Bristol, Brighton: Openness (liberal, non-traditional and educated) linked with more foreign-born residents, same-sex partnerships, violent crime and less married residents
33
Cultural determinants of SWB
- Individualistic
- Higher GDP
- Democracy and perceived freedom of choice
34
H: Individualism-Collectivism
Degree to which individuals are integrated into groups
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H: Power Distance
Extent to which the less powerful members accept and expect the power distribution to be unequal
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H: Masculinity-Femininity
Extent of emphasis on work goals as opposed to interpersonal goals
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H: Uncertainty Avoidance
Tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity
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H: Long-term vs. Short-term orientation
Differing priorities for dealing with present and future while trying to maintain links with past
(Added due to Bond's findings in China)
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H: Indulgence-Restraint
Freedom, pleasure, enjoyment (Added due to Michael Minkov)
40
S: Autonomy vs. Embeddedness
* Autonomy: people as autonomous bounded entities; encourage uniqueness and own preferences, feelings, ideas, abilities
* Embeddedness: people as entities embedded in collectivity; meaning in life through ingroup social relationships
41
S: Harmony vs. Mastery
* Harmony: fitting into social and natural world (accepting, preserving, appreciating); avoiding conflict
* Mastery: encourage self-assertion (master, direct, change); active and pragmatic problem-solving
42
S: Egalitarianism vs. Hierarchical
* Egalitarianism: urge people to recognize each other as moral equals; internalize commitment to cooperate, concern for welfare of all and acting voluntarily to benefit others
* Hierarchy: hierarchical system of ascribed roles; unequal distribution of power
43
I: Traditional vs. Secular-rational
Religious values, individual rights, beliefs about good and evil, deference to authority
44
I: Self-expression vs. Survival
Reflects shift from emphasis on economic and physical security to appreciation of self-expression, subjective well-being and quality of life
45
Social representations
Structured mental content about socially relevant phenomena
46
HIV Study (Goodwin)
- School and shelter children
- Russia, Georgia, Ukraine
- Differences in hedonistic values partly explain significant cultural and group differences in sexual behaviour, knowledge and representation of HIV/AIDS
- Differing media portrayals in different countries
- Influence of focus groups in Russian and Ukrainian shelter children on behaviour
- Increased knowledge and reduction of misrepresentations in all focus group members
47
Swine flu (Europeans vs. Malaysians)
- Europeans more likely to learn from TV while Malaysians from newspaper and friends/family
- Around a fifth of our total respondents, and a quarter of Malaysians, saw swine flu originating in a genetic mutation
- Reflects concerns over contemporary farming methods and risks of fast-evolving diseases in modern societies
- ‘Outgroups’ of homeless, homosexuals and prostitutes seen at risk, particularly in Malaysia
- Psychological distancing positively related to anxiety (e.g. avoiding public transport, flying)
48
Trompeanaars seven dimensions
1. Individualism-Collectivism
2. Universalism-Particularism
3. Neutral vs. emotional relationships
4. Specific vs. diffuse orientations
5. Achievement vs. ascription
6. Attitudes to time
7. Attitudes to the environment
49
Trompeanaars 4 structures
1. Guided missile
2. Incubator
3. Eiffel Tower
4. Family
50
Conflict management: Van Oudenhoven et al. (1998)
- Divided solutions into: problem solving, assertiveness, empathising
- Problem solving the best way usually
- Less problem solving in higher PD and UA
- Femininity lead to more problem solving
51
Nine dimensions for leaders (Globe project)
1. Performance orientation
2. Assertiveness
3. Future orientation
4. Humane orientation
5. Institutional Collectivism
6. In-group collectivism
7. Gender Egalitarianism
8. Power Distance
9. Uncertainty avoidance
52
Six leaders (Globe project)
1. Charismatic/ Value-based
2. Team oriented
3. Participative
4. Humane
5. Autonomous
6. Self-protective
53
Workplace bullying (Los et al., 2010)
* Those who were bullied were less likely to have job satisfaction or identify with group
* Stronger effects in Australia with low power distance than Singapore (almost expected in high PD cultures)
54
Equality and power distance in the workplace
* Fischer & Smith (2003): High PD and income inequality prefer equity
* He et al. (2004): Vertical collectivism (high PD) ~ job performance rewards; horizontal collectivism (low PD) ~ equal rewards
55
Consumer behaviour personality in individualistic societies
* Higher overall quality expectations
* More focus on tangible environment
* Less satisfied
* More likely to complain following failure
* More focused on pragmatic recovery
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Consumer behaviour personality in collectivistic societies
* Lower expectations of quality
* More focus on intangible cues from environment
* Less likely to complain
* More focused on social benefits/ relationship
57
Universals in mate choice
- Explained by evolutionary perspective
Buss et al. (1989)
- Women in most cultures valued good financial prospects and ambition
- Men wanted physical attractiveness, chastity, youth
58
Four attachments in adults (Schmitt)
1. Secure: positive view of self and others
2. Dismissive: positive view of self and negative view of others
3. Preoccupied: negative view of self and positive view of others
4. Fearful: negative view of self and others
59
Individualism-Collectivism and mate preferences
- Family more important in collectivist
- I: primacy of abstract qualities (personality)
- C: pragmatic desires
60
Masculinity-Femininity and mate preference
- M: achievement, heroism, assertiveness, success, health
| - F: compassionate, affectionate
61
Self-perceived mate value (Goodwin et al., 2012)
- Perceived qualities are significant for self-esteem
| - Individualistic: more likely to rate qualities with emotional investment
62
Attractiveness stereotypes
- Halo effect but not necessarily concerned for others or high integrity
- Stronger tendency to stereotype in US and Korea (Wheeler & Kim)
63
Falling in love (Burgess & Wallin, 1953)
Expected, approved and sanctioned precondition for marriage in USA
64
Choosing mother or spouse (Wu et al., 2016)
Cultural assumption of the primacy of the marriage relationship over the parent–child relationship may not apply to Taiwanese
65
Would you marry if... (Levine et al.)
Affluence underlines unwillingness to marry without love (better predictor; positively correlated 0.70)
66
Love styles
1. Eros: romantic, passionate
2. Ludus: game playing
3. Storge: friendship
4. Mania: obsessive
5. Pragma: logical
6. Agape: altruistic
67
Love styles in Turkey and Great Britain (Sanri & Goodwin, 2013)
Correlation between individual-level values and love styles (bigger difference between rural and urban than between countries)
68
Social penetration theory (friendships)
1. Biographical data
2. Preference in clothes, food and music
3. Goals and aspirations
4. Religious convictions
5. Deeply held fears and fantasies
6. Concept of self
69
Effect of disasters on social networks
- Family more important
- Spouse closer
- Social support as a buffer from stress (but culture e.g. Japanese found it shameful to have support from child so that was more distressing)
70
Dutch caregivers(Huijbregts et al., 2009)
- Valuing individualistic goals was found more with increased years of experience and positive orientation toward Dutch society
- Working in ethnically diverse context made all caregiver types express more collectivist beliefs
- Can be interpreted as support for multidimensionality of child-rearing beliefs
71
Maternal beliefs in immigrants in Israel (Ulitsa et al., 2017)
- 1.5 generation Jewish mothers most important socialization goal didn't not differ from first generation: education, learning and goal orientation
- Second and third most important was similar to Israeli secular mothers: self-confidence and social skills
72
Parental negativity and child self esteem (Atzaba-Poria & Pike, 2015)
- Children’s self-esteem is associated with the parent who has biggest impact on household
- Indian British (father)
- White English (mother)
73
Sociocultural factors that affect family structure
- Political context
- Formal education
- Government attitudes
- Employment
74
Population factors affecting acculturation
- Physical location
- Biological factors
- Political
- Economic
- Cultural
- Social networks and support
- Size of acculturating group
- Novelty factors
75
Types of receiving culture
Integrationist vs. separatist
76
Individual factors affecting acculturation
- Reasons for new country
- Expected permanency of move
- Education
- Wage employment
- Money
- Urbanisation
- Media
- Language
- Social relations
- Values and cognitive style; includes personality
- Self-esteem
77
Acculturation
Cultural change that is initiated by the conjunction of two or more autonomous cultural systems
78
Four modes (Berry, 1990) Integration
- Maintain culture
| - Seek contact with other groups
79
Four modes (Berry, 1990) Separation
- Maintain culture
| - Do not seek contact with other groups
80
Four modes (Berry, 1990) Assimilation
- Do not wish to maintain culture
| - Seek contact with other groups
81
Four modes (Berry, 1990) Marginalization
- Do not wish to maintain culture
| - Do not seek contact with other groups
82
Outcomes for four modes (Sam & Berry, 2006)
- Integrated best and then assimilated
83
Polish migrants in UK (Goodwin, Polek & Bardi et al., 2012)
- Poles willing to engage in social relations up to a point with British hosts but more sceptical for long term relationships (stayed same after 2 years)
- Those back home provided emotional aid
- Language competency as a key predictor of willingness to have close relations with Brits
- Ambivalence towards NHS
- Trusted UK political figures more
- Values and beliefs small to moderate predictors of experiences in UK (r= .15)
- Another significant predictor is perceptions of change over time (e.g. applying for citizenship)
