D - done Flashcards
(227 cards)
1
Q
Theories of development are often categorized as? (8)
A
Learning Cognitive Psychoanalytic Humanistic Ethological Physical Language Moral
2
Q
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of learning theory? (3)
A
Behavioral
Social learning
Information processing
3
Q
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of psychoanalytic theory? (2)
A
Neo-Freudian
Ego psychology
4
Q
What developmental theories are included in the broad category of humanistic theory? (2)
A
Humanistic
Self theories
5
Q
Human growth and development changes can be viewed as classified into different dichotomies, which are?
A
Qualitative or quantitative
Continuous or discontinuous
Mechanistic or organismic
6
Q
Developmental changes that are qualitative?
That are quantitative?
A
- Qualitative: change in kind or structure or organization, eg sexual development
- Quantitative: change in number degree or frequency, eg intellectual development
7
Q
Developmental changes that are continuous?
That are discontinuous?
A
- Continuous development emphasizes the small shifts or gradual, sequential, changes that occur over time and that are difficult to separate. Eg, Skinner’s operant conditioning portrayed developmental changes as a series of stimulus response contingencies, strengthening a pattern of behavior over time. Eg, personality development.
- Discontinuous: changes that can be separated into stages, abilities jump to qualitatively different and more advanced levels. Eg, stage theories, such as Piaget’s and Erikson’s, and language development.
8
Q
Developmental changes that are active vs reactive?
A
Active and reactive theories stress the roles that people play in determining their own development. Active theories, such as Erikson’s, portray people as active in regulating or governing their behavior. In reactive theories, such as Skinner’s operant conditioning, people are passive and react to environmental stimuli.
9
Q
Developmental changes that are mechanistic (environmental)?
That are organismic?
A
- Mechanistic (or environmental): development is compared to the workings of a machine. Change is stimulated by the environment, which shape the behavior of the child (Passive beings). Includes Skinner’s Behavioral model
- Organismic: the organism is involved, active, uses cognition, eg moral or ethical development. Piaget, Maslow, Rogers, Gestalt.
10
Q
Nature vs nurture in human development-
Nature?
Nurture?
How seen in most developmental theories?
A
Nature - includes genetic and hereditary factors
Nurture - includes learning and environmental factors
Most developmental theories (e.g., Freud, Erikson, Piaget) are interactionist or epigenetic: they acknowledge the relationship of nature and nurture.
11
Q
Development of self-concept -
Definition of self-concept?
Influenced by? (2)
Development of self-concept by age group? (5)
A
- Your perception of your qualities, attributes, and traits.
- Influenced by culture and family.
- Birth: no sense of self; quickly changes in early months
- By 24 months: signs of self-recognition, identify categories such as age and gender, who is “like me”
- Preschool: self-concept is concrete and physical
- By 8 yo: can describe inner qualities
- By adolescence: self-concepts become more abstract and psychological
12
Q
Genotype?
Phenotype?
A
- Genetic make up of the individual
- The way the genotype is expressed through physical and behavioral characteristics
13
Q
Tabula rasa?
A
John Locke’s idea that children begin as blank slates, acquiring characteristics through experience.
14
Q
Plasticity, in development?
A
For most individuals, lifespan development is plastic, with an easy and smooth transition from one stage to the next.
15
Q
Resiliency -
Definition?
Example?
A
- The ability to adapt despite adverse experiences.
- Eg, some children, despite damaging circumstances, seem to suffer few consequences.
16
Q
Neuroscience in mental health -
Sometimes referred to as?
Place in counseling?
A
- Sometimes referred to as the missing link.
- The mind is the product of molecular, cellular, and anatomical activity in the brain, which is in turn impacted by experience in relationships, culture, society. Counseling promotes release of various neurotransmitters that promote brain changes.
17
Q
In general, neurotransmitters affect people how?
A
They carry messages between neurons
that stimulate chemical reactions in the brain
leading to various cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions
to experiences.
18
Q
Four principal neurotransmitters?
A
Acetylcholine
Serotonin
Dopamine
GABA
19
Q
Acetylcholine - important for?
A
Important for memory, cognitive functioning, emotional balance and control
20
Q
Serotonin - vital for?
A
Emotional and cognitive processes, sleep and anxiety control
21
Q
Dopamine - important for?
A
Emotional wellness, motivation, pleasurable feelings
22
Q
GABA - helps?
A
Reduce anxiety, promote relaxation and sleep
23
Q
Robert Havighurst ( 1972 ) proposed a developmental task approach -
Covering which times of life?
Achieving tasks meant?
General difference between early and later tasks?
A
- a series of developmental tasks from infancy through late adulthood.
- as humans achieve these tasks, their sense of self and mastery improves.
- earlier tasks have biological determinants, later tasks have social and cultural determinants.
24
Q
Maslow’s theory -
Type of theory?
Hierarchy of needs - first to last?
A
A humanistic theory. Food Safety Belonging Self-esteem/status Self-actualization
25
Robert Havighurst - developmental theory -
Stages?
Tasks arise from?
Tasks consist of?
- 6 Stages, each requiring completion of the last for success and happiness: infancy, early childhood, middle childhood, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, late maturity
- Developmental tasks arise from physical maturation, culture, and the individual's values
- Development tasks are skills, knowledge, behaviors, attitudes that an individual has to acquire through maturation, learning, effort
26
Behaviorism view of human development?
- A learning approach
- Environment manipulates biological and psychological needs resulting in development
- Learning and behavior change results from reward and punishment
- We grow develop and learn through experience, the rewards and punishments we receive.
27
Classical conditioning vs operant conditioning?
Classical: pairing an unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response with a conditioned stimulus.
Operant: reward/punishment follows a behavior.
28
Law of effect -
Formulated by?
States what?
Thorndike
When a stimulus-response is followed by a reward/reinforcement, the connection is strengthened. Consequences affect the probability of it being repeated.
29
Classical conditioning - simple example?
Food - salivation; bell - salivation
30
Pavlov and classical conditioning?
Pavlov demonstrated that pairing an unconditioned stimulus (US), smeat powder, that automatically elicited the unconditioned response (UR), salivation, with a neutral, conditioned stimulus (CS), such as something that ordinarily would not elicit salivation (e.g., a tone, buzzer, or bell), would, after a number of pairings, result in the CS eliciting the UR, now called the conditioned response (CR).
31
3 possible timings of US and CS?
| How effective is each?
- Simultaneous conditioning occurs when the US and the CS are presented at the same instant.
- Delayed conditioning occurs when the CS begins first but overlaps presentation of the US; most effective.
- Backward conditioning means that the US is presented before the CS; rarely effective.
32
Operant conditioning - simple example?
Pick up toys - get a hug or a cookie
33
4 Reinforcement schedules?
```
Fixed ratio (FR) - reinforce after a fixed number of responses
Variable ratio (VR) - reinforce on average, every nth response
Fixed interval (FI) - reinforce after a fixed period of time
Variable interval (VI) - reinforce on average, every nth period of time
```
34
Classical conditioning - What is extinction?
Repeated display of the CS without presentation of the UR/CR will lead to a weakening of the learning.
35
Conditioning - Spontaneous recovery is?
After a rest period, the conditioned response reappears when the conditioned stimulus is presented again.
36
Conditioning - stimulus generalization?
Once a response has been conditioned, stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus are also likely to elicit the conditioned response.
37
Classical conditioning - stimulus discrimination?
Eg, a green light is the CS that leads to the CR, and an experimenter then uses a red light. If the participant is reinforced for responding to the red light, generalization will occur; but if the response is not rewarded with the presentation of the CR, and the participant stops responding to the red light, stimulus discrimination is occurring.
38
Conditioning - Shaping?
Behavior can be shaped through successive approximations.
39
What is the Psychoanalytic approach to personality development?
Freud:
- Personality develops through interaction of personal needs (drives) and the environment, and past experiences play an essential part.
- Personality development involves transforming basic instincts into socially acceptable, rational behavior.
40
Freud's 5 psychosexual stages and ages?
```
Oral, 1-1.5
Anal, 2-3
Phallic, 3-5 (Oedipal, Electra complexes)
Latency, 6-12
Genital, 12-?
```
41
Freud's 5 psychosexual stages?
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic (Oedipal, Electra complexes)
Latency
Genital
```
42
Development occurs in what 3 broad areas?
Physical
Cognitive
Psychosocial
43
Freud's tripartite structure of personality?
Each operates on which principle?
Failure of the ego to resolve issues between id and superego?
- -The id: basic instincts (libido, sex, aggression, pleasure); operates on the pleasure principle; strives to reduce tension by seeking immediate gratification of needs, usually through unrealistic or irrational means.
- -The ego: operates on the reality principle; makes a socially acceptable, reality-based resolution to the urges of the id and demands of the superego.
- -The superego: operates on the morality principle; displays the moral values and standards internalized through social interactions.
- -Failure of the ego to resolve issues may lead to use of defense mechanisms to lower anxiety.
44
Libido?
Instinctual life force
45
Freud - Fixation?
Incomplete or inhibited development at one of the psychosexual stages
46
Freud - Pleasure principle?
Seek pleasure, avoid pain
47
Freud - reality principle?
The ability of the mind to assess the reality of the external world, and to act upon it accordingly, as opposed to acting on the pleasure principle.
48
Freud - erogenous zones?
Areas of bodily excitation such as mouth, anus, genitals.
49
Defense mechanisms - list (12)
Denial, Repression, Regression, Projection, Reaction formation, Intellectualization, Rationalization, Compensation, Displacement, Introjection, Sublimation, Suppression (is conscious)
50
Defense mechanisms - Projection
Attributing one's own unacknowledged unacceptable or unwanted thoughts and emotions to another.
51
Defense mechanisms - Displacement?
Substituting the true object of one's frustrations w a less threatening or more acceptable object
52
Defense mechanisms - Reaction formation?
Emotions and impulses which are anxiety-producing or unacceptable are mastered by holding an exaggeration of the directly opposite emotion/impulse.
53
Defense mechanisms - Rationalization?
Providing a different reason than the true one to reduce anxiety
54
Defense mechanism - definition?
Unconscious protective processes that help us control primitive emotions and anxiety.
55
Defense mechanisms - repression?
Keeping out of consciousness the idea that creates anxiety
56
Defense mechanisms - Compensation?
Substituting a successful experience for one that produced failure.
57
Erikson's theory -
Name?
Stages?
```
Theory of psychosocial development
Trust vs mistrust
Autonomy vs shame and doubt
Initiative vs guilt
Industry vs inferiority
Identity vs role confusion
Intimacy vs isolation
Generativity vs stagnation
Integrity vs despair
```
58
Erikson's stages with resulting ego virtue?
```
Trust vs mistrust--hope
Autonomy vs shame and doubt--will
Initiative vs guilt--purpose
Industry vs inferiority--competence
Identity vs role confusion--fidelity, able to commit
Intimacy vs isolation--love
Generativity vs stagnation--care
Integrity vs despair--wisdom
```
59
Defense mechanisms - Introjection?
Unconsciously taking on values, behavior, or attitudes of others, esp parents.
60
Defense mechanisms - Intellectualization?
Reduces anxiety by thinking about events in a cold, clinical way, avoiding emotions.
61
Erikson's stages with ages?
```
0-1.5--Trust vs mistrust
1.5-3--Autonomy vs shame and doubt
3-6--Initiative vs guilt
6-11--Industry vs inferiority
Adolescence--Identity vs role confusion
Early adulthood--Intimacy vs isolation
Middle adulthood--Generativity vs stagnation
Late adulthood--Integrity vs despair
```
62
Piaget - 2 processes within adaptation?
Assimilation - modifying events so they fit in our existing mental structure
Accommodation - modifying our mental structure to accommodate events
63
Piaget -
Studied?
We inherit 2 tendencies, which are?
- Cognitive development/intelligence
| - Organization (we organize mental processes, knowledge) and adaptation (we adjust to the environment)
64
Piaget - Schema?
A mental structure that processes info, perceptions, experiences
65
Piaget's 4 stages with ages?
- Sensorimotor, 0-2
- Preoperational, 2-7
- Concrete operational, 7-11
- Formal, 11-15 if at all
66
Piaget's 4 stages with definitions?
- Sensorimotor: learn cause-and-effect , trial-and-error problem solving , and object permanence (i.e., objects do not vanish when out of sight), which mark a transition to symbolic thought
- Preoperational: develop symbolic representations that allow them to use language, egocentric (hard to take another's POV), centration , or centering , (only capable of focusing on one facet of a situation at the same time), animism ( the attribution of life or human characteristics to inanimate objects), irreversibility (lack of understanding that actions or circumstances can be undone or changed).
- Concrete operational: begin logical operations, can sequence objects, understand conservation
- Formal: abstract and relativistic thinking, deductive reasoning, test hypotheses, logical problem solving
67
Kohlburg's theory -
Name?
Stages?
```
Theory of moral development
Preconventional
Obedience and punishment
Instrumental hedonism
Conventional
Good boy, good girl (seeking approval)
Law and order
Postconventional
Moral/social contract and system of laws (most values and rules are relative)
Universal ethical principles (self-chosen, universal ethical principles)
```
68
Gilligan's theory of moral development -
| Stages? (3)
Orientation to Individual Survival
Goodness is Self-sacrifice
Morality of Nonviolence
69
Daniel Levinson wrote?
| His stages?
```
Seasons of a man's life
3 transitions between 4 eras of life:
- early adult transition, 17-22
- mid-life transition, 40-45 (midlife crisis)
- late adult transition, 60-65
```
70
Levinson - 3 sets of developmental tasks?
- Build, modify, enhance life structure
- Form and modify components such as life dream, occupation, love-marriage, family relationships, mentor, mutual relationships
- Become more individuated
71
Urie Bronfenbrenner's developmental approach?
| His 5 systems?
Ecological approach, looks at least levels and systems impacting a person.
Micro - family, school, peers, health system, church
Meso - communication between above
Exo - indirect influence of larger systems - industry, mass media, local politics, social services
Macro - cultural values, customs, laws
Chrono - timing of physiological events, family events, historical
72
Social learning developmental models -
These models look at?
Going beyond behaviorism, they?
One theory is?
- Look at social environment and cognitive factors
- Go beyond simple stimulus response of behaviorism, noting we can think about the connections between our behaviors and the consequences
- Bandura's social learning theory
73
Bandura's social learning theory -
Types of theory?
Central concept?
A social learning model and a cognitive behavioral approach.
| Self-efficacy
74
Self-efficacy -
Definition?
Facilitated through what 4 mechanisms?
- The belief we can perform some task or behavior.
- Modeling, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion that we can do the task, and physiological states such as emotional arousal during the behavior
75
William Perry studied intellectual an ethical development in?
3 general categories?
3 positions within each category?
College students.
-Dualism
Authorities know; right and wrong authorities; good authorities may not know everything yet
-Relativism discovered
May be no right/wrong and uncertainty may be ok; all knowledge may be relative; in an uncertain world, I'll have to make decisions
-Commitment in relativism
Initial commitment; balancing several commitments; commitments evolve and may be contradictory
76
```
Theories of women's development -
What problems have made women second class citizens?
```
Gender stereotyping, male-imposed standards, devaluation of women's qualities
77
Theories of women's development - spoke out against masculine bias in psychoanalytic theory?
Nancy Chodrow
78
Theories of women's development - significance of care taking?
Who wrote a book about it?
- Women spend a large part of their lives helping others develop.
- Jean Baker Miller wrote Toward a New Psychology of Women.
79
Theories of women's development - self-in-relation theory, now called relational-cultural theory?
Developed by?
7 components?
Developed at Stone Center, Judith Jordan, 1991
- People grow toward relationships throughout life
- Mature functioning - mutuality and deepening connections
- Psychological growth - involvement in complex and diversified relational networks
- Mutual empathy and empowerment - core of positive relationships
- Growth fostering relationships require engagement to be authentic
- Growth fostering relationships stimulate growth and change
- Goals of development - increasing ability to name and resist disconnections, sources of oppression, obstacles to mutual relationships
80
Women's development - Harriet Learner?
Dance of Intimacy
Choose a healthier balance of other and self
Show strength, independence, assertiveness
81
Women's development - Carol Travis?
Wrote Mismeasure of a Woman
Women are misjudged by their fit into a male world
Society pathologizes women
82
Women's development - Carol Gilligan?
Wrote In a Different Voice
| Women view relationships differently than men, communication patterns are different.
83
Women's development - Gail Sheehy?
Wrote Passages
| Opportunities for growth through crises we face
84
Human development - spirituality -
Percent of US pop w spiritual beliefs?
How does it intersect w mental health?
Counsellors should be able to?
90%
Spirituality may directly influence view of self, relationships, world view, and problems.
Address spirituality issues important to CTs situation; have or acquire appropriate knowledge for a wide variety of beliefs, have awareness of their own spiritual beliefs
85
Human development - intelligence -
3 Theorists?
Nature vs nurture?
Testing intelligence?
Piaget - intelligence is adaptive thinking or action
Spearman - generalized (g) and specialized (s) abilities
Thurstone - identified several primary mental abilities
Intelligence is not fixed or determined solely by genetics, but is influenced by environment, experiences, culture
Intelligence tests may be biased
86
Human development - Daniel Goleman -
Wrote?
His theory states?
Wrote Emotional Intelligence
- Emotional intelligence can operate out of human emotions, independently of reasoning and thinking.
- It is a learned developmental process.
87
Human development - an emotionally intelligent person is?
Self-motivated, empathic, grasps social signals and nonverbals, develops strong interpersonal abilities.
88
Human development - midlife crisis?
Both men and women may experience a painful self evaluation process but not at a crisis level.
89
Human development - propinquity?
In selecting a partner, one will most likely set involved w someone who lives or works nearby.
90
Anabolism vs catabolism?
Anabolism - Building up towards peak potential
| Catabolism - slow decline from peak to death
91
3 aspects of aging?
Biological - body function and aging
Psychological - individual's perception of his/her age
Social - society's attitudes and perceptions of aging, affected by vocation and SES
92
Human Development Research - special research designs? (7)
- Case study
- Naturalistic study
- Survey research
- Correlational research
- Cross-sectional design studies - examine several groups from differing levels of development (e.g., 5-yearolds, 10-year-olds, 15-year-olds).
- Longitudinal studies - use same cohort
- Time-lag studies - sometimes called cohort sequential studies, replications of previous studies on a modern-day cohort
93
Central nervous system consists of?
Brain and spinal cord.
94
What is the peripheral nervous system?
The peripheral nervous system is the network of nerves that connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body
95
Describe development of the human brain.
At birth: 25% of its mature adult size and weight.
End 1 yr: 60% of its adult weight
End 2nd yr: 80%
Age 16: full adult size
Age 30: begins to shrink (lose neurons)
Late 80s: about 20% less than that when it was 30 years old.
Approaching old age: blood flow decreases, as do levels of some neurotransmitters
96
The 3 parts of the brain are?
| Levels of development at birth?
(a) the hindbrain (brain stem)
(b) the midbrain, both of which are highly developed at birth
(c) the forebrain (cerebral cortex), which is mostly undeveloped at birth.
97
What is the hindbrain responsible for?
| It includes? (4)
The hindbrain is responsible for life maintenance and survival functions.
- Medulla oblongata
- Cerebellum
- Pons
- Reticular activating system
98
Medulla oblongata -
Part of?
Function? (2)
- Hindbrain
| - Regulates the heart and breathing.
99
Cerebellum-
Part of?
Function? (1)
- Hindbrain.
| - Regulates balance.
100
Pons-
Part of?
Function? (3)
-Hindbrain
-Connects cortex and cerebellum,
connects left and right cerebellum,
Involved in respiration and sleep.
101
Reticular activating system-
Part of?
Function? (2)
- Hindbrain
| - Regulates arousal and attention.
102
Functions of the midbrain? (3)
- connects the hindbrain and forebrain
- controls eye muscles
- relays auditory and visual information to the cortex
103
What is the forebrain?
| Includes?
- The forebrain includes the cerebral cortex, left and right hemispheres, and corpus callosum
104
Left hemisphere - controls and is responsible for?
Controls the right side of the body and tends to be more responsible for language and logic.
105
Right hemisphere - controls and is responsible for?
Controls the left side of the body and tends to be more responsible for music abilities, spatial abilities, visual imagery, and emotional expression.
106
Corpus callosum?
- bundle of nerve cells that connects the two hemispheres
| - allows them to integrate cognitive, emotional, and bodily functions
107
```
Cerebral cortex -
Part of?
Location?
Responsible for?
Is divided into what lobes?
```
- Part of the forebrain
- Covers the two cerebral hemispheres;
- Responsible for higher-order behavior and conscious thought; memory, concentration, problem-solving abilities, and muscle coordination
- Is divided into four lobes: Occipital, Parietal, Temporal, Frontal
108
Occipital lobe?
Part of the?
Functions include?
- One of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
| - Helps brain interpret sensory information through the eyes
109
Parietal lobe -
Part of the?
Functions include?
- One of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
| - Controls spatial reasoning and sense of touch
110
Temporal lobe -
Part of the?
Functions include? (3)
- One of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
- auditory processing, language comprehension, and
long term memory including emotions
111
Frontal lobe -
Part of the?
Functions include?
- One of the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex
| - Executive functions, planning, attention, decision making, longer term memories, motor cortex and voluntary movement
112
Thalamus - functions? (2)
- Hub - relays sensory and motor signals to the cerebral cortex
- Sleep/wakefulness
113
Limbic system -
- is concerned with?
- contains? (3)
- concerned with emotions and motivation
| - contains the hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus
114
The hippocampus -
- part of?
- functions?
- the Limbic system
| - influences memory formation and helps to recognize novel information or situations
115
The hypothalamus -
- part of?
- functions and regulates?
- the Limbic system
-Links nervous system to endocrine system via pituitary and
regulates hunger, thirst, sexual functions, body temperature, etc., through release of hormones
116
Amygdala -
- part of?
- functions?
- the Limbic system
| - influences memories associated with emotions, memory consolidation, fear, aggression
117
Three classes of genetic disorders and some major examples of each?
- autosomal diseases: involve a chromosome other than the sex chromosome; eg phenylketonuria, Tay-Sachs, sickle cell
- X-linked diseases: are passed on by the X chromosome; eg male pattern baldness, hemophilia
- sex chromosomal disorders: some genetic anomaly occurring on the sex-determining pair of chromosomes, usually affecting male or female characteristic displays or sexual reproduction; eg Turner's (XO), Klinefelter's syndromes (XXY)
118
John B. Watson?
- Sometimes called father of American behaviorism
- Borrowing on classical conditioning from Pavlov, Watson proposed that development involved learned associations between stimuli and responses. Watson is perhaps most remembered for the (in) famous Watson and Rayner ( 1920 ) experiment with “Little Albert,” in which he attempted to condition a phobia into an 11-month-old infant (which he accomplished) and then attempted to decondition the phobia (which he did not accomplish).
119
What was Joseph Wolpe known for? (3)
- 1958, applied classical conditioning procedures to psychotherapy.
- reciprocal inhibition
- systematic desensitization
120
What is reciprocal inhibition?
| Invented by?
- A person cannot engage in two mutually exclusive events simultaneously; cannot feel relaxed and anxious at the same time, think negative and self-affirming thoughts at the same time.
- Wolpe.
121
What is systematic desensitization?
Based on?
Invented by?
- Involves developing a fear hierarchy and progressively introducing each step on the hierarchy while the client attains a simultaneous state of relaxation. The fear is systematically deconditioned using reciprocal inhibition.
- Based on classical conditioning
- Wolpe
122
Counterconditioning -
- definition? (3)
- a technique based on?
- example?
- A dominant pleasant stimulus is paired with a weaker aversive stimulus. Systematic desensitization is counterconditioning.
A gradual approach helps insure the pleasant stimulus is dominant.
- a technique based on classical conditioning.
- Ex: petting and soothing a dog who gets anxious at seeing his cage.
123
Aversive counterconditioning -
- definition?
- a technique based on?
- example?
- A noxious stimulus is applied when a maladaptive response is made.
- a technique based on classical conditioning
- Eg, In a thought-stopping procedure, a rubber band is snapped on the wrist when clients experience the thoughts they are trying to suppress.
124
Flooding -
- definition?
- a technique based on?
- a stimulus that provokes anxiety is continuously presented until the client unlearns the response or becomes too fatigued to respond.
- a technique based on classical conditioning
125
Skinner's theory -
Name?
Describe theory re development?
- Skinner ( 1953 ) termed his theory operant conditioning.
| - According to Skinner, all learning was controlled by the contingencies surrounding the stimulus and response.
126
Positive reinforcement?
Occurs when the addition of a stimulus (e.g., reward) immediately following the response increases the likelihood that the behavior will reoccur.
127
Negative reinforcement?
Occurs when the removal of a stimulus (e.g., loud noise) increases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur.
128
Punishment?
The addition or removal of a stimulus that decreases the frequency of a given behavior. It is also commonly referred to as an aversive behavioral technique (e.g., spanking, extra chores, removing allowance or privileges).
129
Primary vs secondary reinforcers?
- Primary reinforcers satisfy a primary need (e.g., food, rest).
- Secondary reinforcers are anything, such as money or tokens, that can be traded for food or comfort.
130
Observational (vicarious) learning vs modeling?
Observational (vicarious) learning is learning through passive observation, whereas modeling is demonstrating how a behavior is performed so that it may be learned and passed on.
131
Bandura believed effective modeling has four components, which are?
1. Attention. Learners must attend to and perceive the modeled behavior accurately.
2. Retention. Learners must process the modeled behavior and store it in memory either through visual imagery or verbal coding.
3. Reproduction. Learners must accurately reproduce and practice/rehearse the behavior.
4. Motivation. Internal reinforcement or external reinforcement increases an individual’s motivation and the likelihood of mastery.
132
Bandura said modeling can be made more effective if what conditions are true?
if observers and models are of similar demographic characteristics (e.g., sex, age, race) or have positive interpersonal attributes (e.g., compassion, nurturance, warmth).
133
Dollard and Miller approach?
- Dollard and Miller were considered “drive” or incentive theorists
- believed that anxiety and psychological disturbances were learned from experiences.
- people form habits (i.e., stable characterological patterns) that allow them to respond predictably to social and other stimuli.
- habits help to reduce primary drives , which are innate (e.g., thirst, hunger), and secondary drives , which are learned (e.g., parental approval, peer acceptance).
134
Dollard and Miller identified three primary types of conflicts?
- -Approach-approach conflicts occur when two positive choices are presented, but only one can be chosen
- -Approach-avoidance conflicts occur when a person wants something appealing but fears being punished or being negatively evaluated for obtaining it
- -Avoidance-avoidance conflicts occur when the person loses no matter which choice is made
135
According to Piaget, people naturally attempt to make sense of the new information through a process known as ___________ , accomplished through a combination of assimilation and accommodation.
equilibration
136
Lev Vygotsky's theory?
- Russian psychologist who developed a constructionist, cognitive developmental theory
- stages of language development to explain cognitive advances.
- first 3 years - social speech aimed at controlling the actions of others
- 3 years - children’s speech is very egocentric: children talk (think) out loud to themselves
- 7 years of age - develop private speech, internalized thoughts
137
2 concepts of Lev Vygotsky -
- Zone of proximal development?
- Scaffolding?
- -Zone of proximal development - the gap between what children are able to learn on their own and what they are potentially able to learn with help.
- -Scaffolding - the supports that must be put in place to help children learn in order to reach their potential. Later, can be removed.
138
Mature cognition is dependent on memory. 3 types of memory?
- Sensory memory (trace memory), ordinarily retained for only a few seconds.
- Short-term memory is a temporary information storage system that allows information (7 + or - 2 bits) to be retained for seconds to minutes if the information is focused on and received properly.
- Long-term memory - enables a person to store a large amount of information for relatively permanent amounts of time,
139
Transfer from short-term to long-term memory is more efficient if the individual can __________ (i.e., compact the information in a meaningful way) and __________ it.
encode
| rehearses
140
What 3 theories are commonly proposed to explain forgetting?
| The 3rd theory has 2 types?
1. Retrieval theory (or poor retrieval theory ): information is held in long-term storage forever, but we often have insufficient cues to retrieve it.
2. Decay of memory theory: traces of information simply decay over time.
3. Interference theory: learned information is inhibited by other learning. a) Retroactive inhibition refers to a loss of memory that occurs when new information interferes with previously learned information. b) Proactive inhibition refers to a loss of memory that occurs when old information interferes with newly learned information.
141
Methods of improving memory? (6)
- Chunking
- Method of loci - a guided visual imagery procedure
- Acronyms
- Eidetic memory - uses visual images to recall visual information
- Yerkes-Dodson law - a moderate state of arousal is better than a low or high state of arousal
- Spaced learning is better than massed learning - 4 one hour periods, rather than 4 hours straight
142
Cognitive dissonance?
| How do we usually handle it?
- conflict or discomfort when a discrepancy is noticed between what he or she already knows and new information being received.
- the person usually rejects the new information in favor of their previously held belief, or alters the existing belief to accommodate the new information
143
Confirmatory bias?
Hearing what one wants to hear. Screening out contradictory info.
144
Attribution theory -
Proposed by?
Describes?
- Proposed by Fritz Heider ( 1967 )
| - our explanations of why things happen
145
Attribution theory - 3 dimensions?
1) Stability: attributing outcomes to consistent causes frequently leads to hopelessness, whereas attributing outcomes to inconsistent causes leads to persistence and hope.
2) Locus: attributing outcomes to internal causes leads a person to claim responsibility for the outcome. Attributing outcomes to external causes and blame/praise go to others.
3) Control: Controllable attributions allow the person some control over the outcome or event, whereas an uncontrollable attribution is out of the person’s hands.
146
Human development - Imaginary audience?
Imaginary audience is a construct proposed by David Elkind (1979 ) to describe the adolescent egocentric belief that everyone is watching and critically judging him or her.
147
Human development - Personal fable?
The adolescent belief of absolute uniqueness. An adolescent believes s/he can engage in reckless, dangerous acts because bad things only happen to others.
148
Human development - Intelligence -
Definition?
How develops?
- a construct designed to describe one’s ability to solve problems and learn new information.
- intelligence is not fixed at birth through genetics (although there is a strong genetic component) but develops through social and environmental interactions.
149
Human development - Raymond B. Cattell's theory of intelligence -
Two types?
Which increases, which decreases w age?
- Crystallized intelligence is gained through learning and is greatly affected by life experiences and culture.
- Fluid intelligence refers to innate ability that is not influenced by experience and education. Consists of reasoning ability, memory capacity, and speed of information processing.
- Crystallized intelligence will increase with age, whereas fluid intelligence declines as we age.
150
Human development - 2 types of creativity?
- divergent thinking (i.e., thinking of many possibilities)
| - convergent thinking (i.e., picking the best solution and focusing on the final product).
151
Gender differences in cognitive development?
| Nature or nurture?
- Between the ages of 10 and 12 years, females start to outperform males in verbal ability, whereas males start to outperform females in math. These differences are very small but statistically significant.
- researchers are not sure whether the differences can be attributed to genetic or environmental influences.
152
Human development - Cognitive changes around age 70?
Ordinarily, significant declines in cognitive abilities do not occur until about 70 years of age. Older adults have more difficulty learning new information and retrieving old information, and they perform more poorly on timed tests and tests requiring memorization.
153
Three categories of language development theories are?
learning theory approaches, the nativist approach, and the interactionist approach.
154
Language development - what are the learning theories? (2)
- social learning theory, in which children acquire language skills by observing and imitating others who are using language (e.g., parents, siblings, teachers, peers); does not explain novel speech and language.
- The stimulus-response approach explains language development as a reinforcement of speech sounds that leads to successively closer and closer approximations of adult speech.
155
Language development - nativist approach?
-Noam Chomsky ( 2006 ) proposed that the human brain is genetically programmed to enable people to create and understand language.
156
Noam Chomsky's nativist theory of language development -Includes what concepts?
Evidence?
- a language acquisition device - humans have the capacity to learn any language through exposure
- language has surface structures (i.e., rules specific to each language)
- language has deep structures (i.e., rules that are innate and universal, such as letter sounds).
- Chomsky’s theory is supported by observations that all children, regardless of culture, go through the same developmental stages and, by 5 to 6 years of age, typically master the basics of the spoken language.
157
Language development - interactionist approach?
proposes that a combination of learning and nativist approaches is responsible for language development through social and cultural influences.
158
Human development - Psycholinguistics?
the study of language development.
159
Human development - Speech vs language?
- Speech is the physical act of forming and sequencing sounds of oral language.
- Language refers to the system of grammatical rules and semantics.
160
Human development - Semantics vs Syntax vs Pragmatics?
- Semantics is the study of word meanings.
- Syntax is the proper use of grammar.
- Pragmatics is how language is used in the social context (e.g., taking turns, pointing, incorporating facial and hand gestures).
161
Human development -
Phonology vs Morphology?
Phoneme vs morpheme?
- Phonology is what a language sounds like. A phoneme is a language’s most basic sound element.
- Morphology governs the rules of word formation. A morpheme is the smallest, meaningful language unit (e.g., “at” has one morpheme, “boys” has two: “boy” and “s”).
162
Human development - dialect?
A dialect is a variation in language. Dialects vary by occupation, age, geographical region, and social class.
163
Three areas of the brain that are important in the context of language development?
- Broca’s area is related to speech production.
- Wernicke’s area is related to speech comprehension.
- The arcuate fasciculus is the bundle of nerve fibers that connects Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area.
164
Milestones in Early Language Development?
8 months --Repeats syllables (e.g., ma-ma)
1 year --Shows understanding of some words
1.5 years --Can produce about 50 one-word utterances (holophrases)
2.0 years --Uses some two-word phrases
2.5 years --A vocabulary of several hundred words; speaks in short sentences
3.0 years --A vocabulary of about 1,000 words
4.0 years --Basic rules of language consistently demonstrated
165
Human development - Communication Disorders -
Percent of children who have difficulty with receptive or expressive language?
The 3 DSM5 disorders and descriptions?
- 2% to 5% of children
- Speech Disorder, the most commonly diagnosed, involves difficulties in producing developmentally expected speech sounds (e.g., developmental misarticulations, sound substitutions).
- Language Disorder --difficulties in the acquisition or use of spoken or written language skills that are long-term and enduring, difficulty producing or understanding developmentally appropriate sentences and limited vocabulary.
- Social Communication Disorder --a pragmatic language impairment, difficulties understanding and using verbal and nonverbal social cues.
166
Human development - Jane Loevinger's theory?
Ego Development Theory, a stage theory.
167
Stages in Jane Loevinger's Ego Development Theory?
1. Presocial Stage. can't self-differentiate self from the world.
2. Symbiotic Stage. Differentiation begins; symbiosis w mother.
3. Impulsive Stage. ego-centric; demanding.
4. Self-Protective Stage. Craves order, blames others.
5. Conformist Stage. Conforms to rules, wants belonging to family.
6. Self-Awareness Stage. Increased self-awareness and capacity to imagine multiple possibilities
7. Conscientious. Standards are self-chosen; guilt from hurting others rather than breaking rules
8. Individualistic. Tolerance; understands individual differences, complexity of situations
9. Autonomous. Strive for self-fulfillment; synthesizing; self-acceptance
10. Integrated. Empathy for self and other; reconciles inner conflicts; full identity
168
Human development - Ethological Theories -
Definition?
Method?
- Emphasize the role of instinct (biological bases) and innate capacities, resulting from evolution, that affect learning experiences and human development.
- use naturalistic observation.
169
Human development - Ethological Theorists? (4)
Konrad Lorenz
John Bowlby
Mary Ainsworth
Harry Harlow
170
What is imprinting?
Who identified it?
What is the critical period?
Konrad Lorenz carried out a famous set of experiments on imprinting , the process by which a duck or gosling attaches to the first moving object it encounters shortly after hatching. Imprinting, which is irreversible, occurs during the critical period or sensitive period.
171
John Bowlby's developmental theory -
Type of theory?
Definition?
Problems in development include?
- Ethological
- infants have an innate potential for attachment which enables them to explore the environment without fear of abandonment.
- failure to attach is believed to affect trust and intimacy in latter development.
172
Human development - John Bowlby ( 1988 ) described what three stages that are readily observed in infants exposed to prolonged separations?
1. Protest. The infant refuses to accept separation and cries.
2. Despair. The infant seems to give up all hope of summoning the caretaker and becomes quiet, inactive, and withdrawn.
3. Detachment. The infant begins to accept attention from others and seems less unhappy. When the caretaker reemerges, the infant often appears uninterested in the caretaker, almost seeming to be “getting even” for the perceived abandonment.
173
Human development - Mary Ainsworth ( 1989 ) described what four patterns of attachment?
1. Securely attached. Normal and secure relationships in which children explore the environment and protest separation.
2. Avoidantly attached. Withdrawn behaviors in which children explore without regard for the caretaker, ignore separations, and avoid reunions when a caretaker reemerges.
3. Ambivalently attached. Infant shows signs of intense distress when mother leaves; avoids and shows fear of stranger; on reunion, child approaches mother, but resists contact, may even push her away; Infant cries more and explores less than the other types.
4. Disorganized attachment. Behaviors in which children show little emotion at separation and mostly confusion at reunion.
174
Human development - Harry Harlow?
Did experiments w monkeys and surrogate mothers. Infant monkeys would move to the wire monkey for food but preferred contact comfort with the terrycloth monkey.
175
Human development - Stranger anxiety?
- occurs around 6 months of age
| - infants become fearful in the presence of strangers (or even noncaretakers the infant had seen weeks earlier)
176
Human development - Separation anxiety?
- between the first and second birthdays
| - extreme distress when separation from a primary caregiver occurs, usually short-lived
177
Identity Development - 4 ways it has been described?
- -A normative identity is consistent with the values and expectations of society or culture (e.g., becoming a doctor, teacher, mother).
- -A deviant identity is inconsistent with the values and expectations of society or culture, or, at least, not systematically reinforced (e.g., addiction to drugs/alcohol, criminal).
- -An achieved identity has been earned through effort and ability (e.g., counselor, teacher, mother).
- -An ascribed identity has been given by others or is the result of another’s efforts and achievements (e.g., “You’re just like your father/mother,” spouse of an elected official).
178
Marcia ( 1966 , 1980 ) expanded on Erikson and identified four identity types?
--Identity Achievement. Committing to goals and taking a course of action.
--Identity Moratorium. Continuing to take in and analyze information without settling on goals or a course of action.
--Identity Foreclosure. Occurs when others (e.g., parents, friends) have determined the goals, which the teen pursues without question.
--Identity Diffusion. Occurs when teens procrastinate or become so confused that they are unable or unwilling to even take in
information.
179
Human development - Sexual identity?
refers to biological features as determined by chromosomal information (i.e., genetically determined).
180
Human development - Gender identity refers to?
| Occurs when?
- -psychosocial awareness of one’s maleness or femaleness and thus contains an environmental or cultural component.
- -occurs by about age 3 years when children self-refer as a boy or girl, and children even younger than two years of age often show preferences for gender-specific toys.
181
Human development -
Gender roles?
Gender role conflict?
- -socially defined behaviors associated with a particular sex
- -occurs when an individual feels anxiety and dissonance as previously held gender expectations conflict with changing gender roles
182
Four theories of gender role development?
- -Social learning theory proposes that children learn gender roles through observational learning and differential reinforcement of sex-typed behaviors from same-sexed models.
- -Cognitive-developmental models propose that as children develop high levels of cognition, they become more aware of their own gender identities.
- -Biological theories stress the role of hormones, observing that more aggressive females (sometimes referred to as “tomboys”) and males have higher levels of testosterone than less aggressive peers.
- -Psychoanalytic theory stresses the role of the Oedipus and Electra complexes and that children emulate their parents.
183
Human development - Prosocial behavior ?
- involves sensitivity to the needs of others
| - occurs in early childhood, but is not consistently displayed until later childhood.
184
Human development -
2 types of normal play?
2 types of aggression?
- Exploratory play and destructive play is normal.
- Instrumental aggression is aimed at acquiring territory, objects, or rewards.
- Hostile aggression is aimed at another person.
185
Human development - Sociodramatic play ?
is the imitation of adult play and facilitates more mature social interactions among children.
186
Human development - Parten ( 1933 ) described what 4 social play categories?
1. Nonsocial activity: preschool years, play by themselves, wander around, observe others
2. Parallel play: play near each other, sometimes doing the same activity, but not with each other.
3. Associative play: While engaged in separate activities, children talk and comment on each other’s activities.
4. Cooperative play: Children play with each other, have a common goal.
187
Human development -
How flexible is self-concept?
How improve self-concept?
- -general self-concept is stable and difficult to change, becomes self-perpetuating, focusing only on what is consistent with their self-concepts.
- -focus change on specific areas of self-concept (e.g., academic, peer relations, family relations, emotional, appearance, and athletic ability).
- -start with concrete experiences that a child can perform successfully, evaluate these experiences objectively, and build on success experiences.
188
Human development - Two primary theories of aging?
- -Disengagement theory (detachment theory) proposes that withdrawal from the social system is a natural process precipitated by the need for reflection, self-preoccupation, and lower need for emotional connectedness with others.
- -Activity theory suggests that as people age they prefer to remain socially active in order to resist self-preoccupation and maintain closer social relationships.
189
Human development - Atchley ( 1975 ) proposed what four stages of retirement?
1. Preretirement. Making plans.
2. Immediately after retirement. A “honeymoon” phase when one enjoys newfound autonomy.
3. Period of disenchantment. Novelty of retirement wears off and individuals may realize their plans were unrealistic.
4. Reorientation. Putting together a satisfactory and realistic lifestyle.
190
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross - stages of grief?
1. Shock and denial.
2. Anger.
3. Bargaining and guilt.
4. Hopelessness.
5. Acceptance. (Moving on and readjusting to a new life situation.)
191
When counseling grieving clients, counselors should be aware of? (3)
The study of grief is known as?
- determinants of the intensity of grief (intensity of relationship, mode of loss, age and sex of mourner)
- obstacles to grieving (sudden loss, lack of finality, lack of support)
- potential for complicated grief
- -thanatology
192
Moral Development - Jean Piaget -
Type of theory?
Describe (3)
He suggested a stage theory:
1. Premoral stage. During the first several years of life, children display only a limited awareness of rules.
2. Moral realism stage. At about 4 or 5 years of age, children begin to develop an awareness of rules, but often do not understand the reason for them.
3. Moral relativism stage. At about 7 years of age, children are aware not only that rules exist but can understand the reasons behind them, understand that rules can be changed cooperatively or unilaterally by authority, there is no absolute right or wrong, and the morality of an action is judged by one’s intention, not by the consequences.
193
Moral Development - behaviorial approach?
| Example?
- focuses on the rewards or punishments associated with moral actions.
- In this way, individuals who are rewarded for antisocial acts may actually conclude that these behaviors are acceptable, causing conflict with societal values.
194
Moral Development - social learning approach (Albert Bandura)?
Example?
- through imitation and vicarious learning
- children learn moral or socially acceptable behavior by observing others in similar situations.
- eg, may can learn stealing is sometimes acceptable when they observe a parent cheat on taxes
194
Developmental Milestone Approach of Arnold Gesell?
- believed that human development reflects a genetic unfolding of, and maturational readiness for, physical, cognitive, language, and social-emotional characteristics or milestones with only slight environmental influence.
- developed a well-known set of assessments, known as the Gesell scales, which yielded a “developmental quotient” (a standard score indicating one’s degree of normal developmental progress).
- developed norms for numerous developmental milestones.
195
Roger Gould’s Adult Developmental Theory?
- -studied more than 1,000 adults
- -they strove to eliminate false assumptions (protective devices), usually relating to parental dependency, that restricted young and middle adult development.
- -viewed adult development as a series of task resolutions that allowed adults to correct these false assumptions and ultimately take control of their lives.
196
Roger Gould's developmental assumptions and resolutions?
I. Young Adulthood
a. Leaving Our Parents’ World (16–22 years): “Adults will always live with their parents.”
b. I’m Nobody’s Baby Now (22–28 years): “My parents will always be there to help when things go wrong or not exactly as I want.”
c. Opening Up to What’s Inside (29 years to low 30s): “My parents can always offer a simplified version and solution to complicated inner realities.”
II. Midlife Decade (35–45 years)
a. “Safety can last forever.”
b. “Death cannot happen to me or my loved ones.”
c. “It is impossible to live without a partner in the world.”
d. “No life or change exists beyond the family.”
197
Robert Peck’s Phase Theory of Adult Development -
Expanded on?
Stages?
Expanded on the final two stages (last 40–50 years) of Erikson’s stages.
I. Phases of Middle Adult Psychological Changes
a. Valuing Wisdom vs. Valuing Physical Powers.
b. Socializing vs. Sexualizing.
c. Cathetic Flexibility vs. Cathetic Impoverishment. (to deal with losses)
II. Phases of the Retirement Years Psychological Development
a. Ego Differentiation vs. Work-Role Preoccupation.
(define their personal worth in ways other than a fulltime occupation.)
b. Body Transcendence vs. Body Preoccupation. (pursue satisfying relationships and creative mental activities.)
c. Ego Transcendence vs. Ego Preoccupation. (make life more secure and meaningful for those who survive them)
198
Human development - generation names?
- GI Generation: 1891–1924
- Silent Generation: 1925–1942
- Baby Boomer Generation: 1943–1960
- Generation X: 1961–1981
- Millennials (Generation Y): 1982–2000
- Generation Z: 1995 or 2000-current
199
Carter and McGoldrick, 1999 - Family development stages?
I. Leaving Home. (peer relations, differentiation from FOO
II. Joining Families Through Marriage.
III. Welcoming Children into the Family.
IV. Raising Adolescents. (And caregiving older parents)
V. Launching. (And welcome kid’s partners, in-laws, grandchildren)
VI. Later Family Life. (Aging issues)
200
Parenting styles? (4)
Authoritarian/Autocrati
Authoritative/Democratic
Laissez-faire/Permissive
Uninvolved/Unengaged
201
What is a crisis?
A crisis is a time-limited period of disequilibrium caused by a precipitating event (stressor) that temporarily affects an individual’s normal coping abilities, rendering him or her inadequate in dealing with the circumstances.
202
Five types of crises?
a) developmental crises: e.g., career change, birth of a child)
b) environmental crises: natural or human-caused events affecting multiple people (e.g., hurricanes, war)
c) existential crises: e.g., questioning the meaning of career, life, existence
d) situational crises: caused by traumatic event e.g., rape, accident, loss of a loved one
e) psychiatric crises: mental health and/or substance use problems
203
James and Gilliland ( 2013 ) proposed a six-step model for assessing client needs during a crisis; the steps are?
(1) defining the problem, (2) ensuring client safety, (3) providing support, (4) examining alternatives, (5) making plans, and (6) obtaining commitment.
204
Hill ( 1949 ) proposed the ABC-X model of family crisis and stress?
(A) provoking stressor/event; (B) family resources; (C) meaning attached to the stressor/event; and (X) the crisis, which is an acute state of family disequilibrium/immobilization.
205
Transcrisis is?
Transcrisis occurs when the traumatic event of an initial crisis is not fully dealt with and becomes submerged into a client’s subconscious. Subsequent similar events then trigger these subconscious feelings.
206
Burnout?
Compassion fatigue?
Vicarious trauma?
- -Burnout
- exhaustion from repeated exposure to stressful circumstances
- result: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced accomplishment.
- -Compassion fatigue aka secondary traumatic stress reaction
- overwhelming feelings after being exposed to client crisis states.
- result: hopelessness, less pleasure, anxiety, negativity.
- -Vicarious trauma
- exposure to client disclosures of traumatic events
- result: can lead to secondary traumatic stress reaction and can affect worldview and sense of self, with long-term, pervasive attitudinal shifts.
207
When working with apparently suicidal clients, counselors must?
- must exercise an expected standard of care , which involves reliable and appropriate interventions and precautions that a prudent professional would exercise under similar circumstances.
- must also exercise foreseeability - discernment of likely client actions based on a comprehensive assessment of risk; not doing an assessment falls below the expected standard of care.
208
American Association of Suicidology ( 2014 ) provides a mnemonic to remember the warning signs of suicide, namely IS PATH WARM, which stands for?
Ideation, Substance abuse, Purposelessness, Anxiety, Trapped, Hopelessness, Withdrawal, Anger, Recklessness, and Mood change.
209
A suicide risk assessment is SLAP, which stands for?
Specific details, Lethality of plan, Availability of method, and Proximity to obtaining help.
210
Problem with standardized suicide assessments?
Clients who complete the assessments in an untruthful manner may not report a level of clinical threat, even though they are truly in danger of harming themselves.
211
Risk factors are?
| Significance of having single vs multiple risk factors?
- characteristics that place people at higher risk of developing mental disorders
- a single risk factor leads to only a slight increase in risk, whereas multiple factors exponentially increase one’s risk status.
212
Which are more important to assess, risk or resiliency factors?
resiliency factors are ordinarily more important to assess, because resilience involves characteristics that allow an individual to rebound from adversity or to maintain equilibrium of positive functioning when exposed to traumatic events or environmental stressors.
213
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of 40 developmental (resilience) assets helpful to counselors using a resilience-based or wellness approach to counseling, broken into 8 categories. What are the 8 categories?
```
I. Support
II. Empowerment
III. Boundaries and Expectations
IV. Constructive Use of Time
V. Commitment to Learning
VI. Positive Values
VII. Social Competence
VIII. Positive Identity
```
214
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Support category are?
1) family support
2) positive family communications
3) other adult relationships
4) caring neighborhood
5) caring school climate
6) parent involvement in schooling
215
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Empowerment category are?
7) community values youth
8) youth as resources
9) service to others
10) safety
216
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Boundaries and Expectations category are?
11) family boundaries
12) school boundaries
13) neighborhood boundaries
14) adult role models
15) positive peer influence
16) high expectations
217
```
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Constructive Use of Time category are?
```
17) creative activities
18) youth programs
19) religious community
20) time at home
218
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Commitment to Learning category are?
21) achievement motivation
22) school engagement
23) homework
24) bonding to school
25) reading for pleasure
219
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Positive Values category are?
26) caring
27) equality and social justice
28) integrity
29) honesty
30) responsibility
31) restraint
220
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Social Competence category are?
32) planning and decision making
33) interpersonal competence
34) cultural competence
35) resistance skills
36) peaceful conflict resolution
221
The Search Institute ( 2005 ) published a list of
40 developmental (resilience) assets grouped into 8 categories.
Assets in the Positive Identity category are?
37) personal power
38) self esteem
39) sense of purpose
40) positive view of personal future
222
What is the wellness approach to counseling?
counselors do not portray clients as mentally ill, but view clients as searching for a healthier lifestyle through a more balanced integration of the mind, body, and spirit.
223
Myers and Sweeney ( 2005 ) proposed an evidence-based model of wellness known as the Indivisible Self. The five dimensions of wellness are?
Facets within each?
I. Physical: exercise, nutrition
II. Essential: spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, self-care
III. Social: friendship, love
IV. Coping: leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic beliefs
V. Creative: thinking, emotions, control, work, positive humor
224
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM ) is published by?
American Psychiatric Association.
225
Characteristics of the DSM? (3)
- most common MH nosological system in the United States
- manual is atheoretical
- etiology is only provided for diagnoses caused by specific factors
226
Complicated grief?
- A DSM5 Dx under study: persistent complex bereavement disorder; may include PTSD Sx.
- Complicated grief is considered when an individual’s ability to resume normal activities and responsibilities is continually disrupted beyond six months of bereavement.
- Six months is considered to be the appropriate point of CGD consideration
