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Question 1

What positive do the sources allow Nero?

Answer 1

Allow him a quinquennium aureum, five ‘golden years’, at the start of his reign. The presentation of Nero’s reign, however, is rarely positive.

Question 2

What did Nero do in immediately, upon his accession?

Answer 2

Deified his adopted father Claudius (Tacitus, Annals 12.69).

Question 3

What coinage displays Nero’s actions towards Claudius, upon his accession?

Answer 3

Aureus showing Claudius’ deification
Date: AD 54
Obverse: Laureate head of Claudius; words reading ‘Divine Claudius Augustus’,
Reverse: Ornamental four-horse chariot surmounted by miniature set of four horses flanked by Victories; SC (By decree of the senate),
Significance: Demonstrates the filial piety of Nero, also gives him further auctoritas as emperor.

Question 4

What consistent criticism is levied against Nero? What is this?

Answer 4

His philhellinism: love for all things Greek. This implied a disregard for Roman values.

Question 5

What became the defining characteristic of Nero’s reign, as recorded by Suetonius? Who did this infuriate?

Answer 5

Nero’s love of music and theatre (Nero 20-23). He even toured Greece for two years, performing in the various festivals of the land. Such behaviour, coupled with his interest in chariot-racing, infuriated the traditional moral conservatism of authors such as Tacitus:
‘It was an old desire of his to stand in the racer of a four-horse team, and a no less foul enthusiasm to sing to the lyre as if at the games.’ (Annals, 14.14)

Question 6

What does Tacitus reveal in his account of the interests of Nero?

Answer 6

1. Reveals his own snobbery towards activities considered beneath the dignity of the Roman elite,
2. Seems to delight in describing the ‘outrages’ of Nero, presenting him as a corrupting influence upon Roman society (e.g. Annals, 14.15, 15.37).

Question 7

What do Suetonius and Dio highlight of Nero’s character?

Answer 7

They highlight the social, religious, and sexual excesses of Nero (e.g. Suetonius, Nero 26-27, 30, 53).

Question 8

What coinage displays Nero’s view of his interests?

Answer 8

As of Nero as a lyre-player
Date: C. AD 62
Obverse: Nero, head bare; ‘Nero Claudius Caesar, Augustus Germanicus’
Reverse: Nero, as Apollo Citharoedus, playing lyre; words reading ‘pontifex maximus, with tribunician power, victorious commander, father of the fatherland’,
Significance: A low denomination coin associating Nero with Apollo and the lyre, portraying himself as cultured to the Roman world.

Question 9

What unusual project of art did Nero commission? What did this become a symbol of?

Answer 9

The so-called Colossus. An immense bronze statue of Nero placed near the centre of the city (Suetonius, Nero 31). Pliny the Elder (NH, 34.45-46) states that Nero would have been prepared to pay for casting the statue in silver or gold.

The Colossus became a by-word for self-indulgence, a symbol of Nero’s desire for immortality through the arts.

Question 10

What does Dio report that seems to question the universal hatred of Nero?

Answer 10

Dio reports that an imposter of Nero, Terentius Maximus, gathered followers in the east during the reign of Titus (RH 66.19.3). If, over a decade after his death, Nero’s name could still attract popular support, any loathing of him cannot have been ‘universal’.

Question 11

How old was Nero when he ascended to the throne AD 54?

Answer 11

Sixteen

Question 12

Who managed the transfer of power in the imperial household?

Answer 12

Agrippina, Burrus, and Seneca.

Question 13

Who was Sextus Afranius Burrus?

Answer 13

A favourite of Agrippina, through whose influence he was appointed as sole Praetorian Prefet by Claudius in AD 51. He retained his post under Nero, to whom he was a leading advisor.

Question 14

Who was Lucius Annaeus Seneca?

Answer 14

A very learned man, in AD 49, Seneca was appointed tutor to Nero. After the death of Agrippina in AD 59, the relationship with Nero became strained, and he was forced to commit suicide.

Question 15

What events lead to the choosing of Nero as emperor?

Answer 15

1. Nero was presented to the Praetorian Cohorts (Tacitus, Annals 12.65-69),
2. Claudius’ own son Britannicus was delayed in the palace by Agrippina,
3. Presents Nero as a usurper, despite his blood relations to Augustus.

Question 16

What suggests the political intrigue that allowed Nero to become emperor? What does this, consequently, show

Answer 16

1. The speed in which Nero was presented to the Praetorian camp, assisted by Burrus, indicates the political intrigue involved in getting Nero, an adopted son, to replace Britannicus,
2. The use of soldiers to endorse Nero also highlights the significance that the army now enjoyed in determining who ruled.

Question 17

What coinage displays the powerful influence Agrippina had over Nero?

Answer 17

The Aureus of Nero
Date: AD 54
Obverse: Heads of Nero and Agrippina; words reading ‘Agrippina Augusta, wife of the divine Claudius, mother of Nero Caesar’
Reverse: Laurel wreath; words reading ‘SC (by decree of the Senate) to Nero Caesar Augustus Germanicus, son of the divine Claudius hailed victorious commander, with tribunician power’
Significance: Agrippina and Nero portrayed as virtually co-rulers

Question 18

What conflict was ongoing in the imperial court?

Answer 18

Seneca and Burrus quickly found themselves in opposition to Agrippina as factions competed to guide the young princeps. However, Agrippina was not easily removed.

Question 19

What does Tacitus report Agrippina of doing to control Nero? What might have prompted this dire strategy?

Answer 19

Tacitus (Nero, 14.2) alleges that Agrippina seduced Nero as a means of control over him. May have been prompted by the emergence of an independent and ruthless streak within Nero, one that matched if it did not exceed Agrippina’s own.

Question 20

What led to Britannicus’ death?

Answer 20

Seneca and Burrus actively encouraged independence within Nero to lessen the influence of Agrippina. In response, Agrippina even threatened to support Britannicus’ claim to the throne as he was now approaching the age of maturity, but all this achieved was the murder of Britannicus by Nero at a banquet in AD 55.

Question 21

What did Agrippina’s death coincide with? What was the relation?

Answer 21

1. Agrippina’s death in AD 59 coincides with the end of Nero’s quinquennium,
2. This was not because of her positive influence, but thereafter it seems that Nero seems to ignore all his advisors.

Question 22

How was the relationship between Nero and his first wife? What did this marriage mean?

Answer 22

1. The marriage in AD 53 between Nero and Octavia established Nero’s legitimacy, but it was far from happy,
2. The Claudian credentials of Octavia were all that Nero required from her and once his reign was established he quickly supplanted her with his freedwoman Acte,
3. Nero removed Octavia by accusing her of sexual outrages, exiling her to Pandateria and then having her murdered in AD 62.

Question 23

Who was Nero’s second wife?

Answer 23

Poppaea Sabina

Question 24

When was Nero and Poppaea’ s daughter born?

Answer 24

Claudia was born on 21 January AD 63, shortly after the execution of Nero’s 1st wife Octavia.

Question 25

How do the sources present Poppaea?

Answer 25

1. Josephus (JA) suggests that Poppaea was a competent and interested political figure, presenting her far more positively than either Dio or Tacitus, 2. Tacitus describes her as among the emperor's most intimate counsellors in his moments of rage (Annals 15.61).

Question 26

When did Poppaea die? What did Nero do in response to her death?

Answer 26

1. Poppaea died in AD 65, following her own daughter Claudia who passed at a mere four months old, 2. Nero deified them both, exceeding the precedent of Gaius' deification of his sister Drusilla AD 38, 3. This deification seems to be from a place of genuine affection, although guilt could have played a part, as Tacitus records that Poppaea's death was linked to Nero's attacking her while she was pregnant.

Question 27

Who was Nero's third wife?

Answer 27

Statilia Messalina, a great-great-granddaughter of Augustus' general Statilius Taurus, who had twice been a consul and won a triumph.

Question 28

What motivated Nero's choice of third wife?

Answer 28

Likely to have been motivated by a desire to appear conventional and respectable to the wider Roman public, although Suetonius states that Nero first had to murder Statilia's husband, Atticus Vestinus. Their wedding, in June AD 66, was Statilia's fifth, and in fact she outlived Nero to marry twice more.

Question 29

What was the major conspiracy against Nero?

Answer 29

The pisonian conspiracy of AD 65.

Question 30

What does Tacitus tell us of this conspiracy?

Answer 30

1. The figurehead was Gaius Calpurnius Piso, 2. Tacitus makes it clear that the conspiracy was widespread, with 'Senators, equestrians, soldiery, and even females' involved (Annals, 15.48; 15.54), 3. Tacitus' portrayal describes Piso as an affable character rather than a political firebrand, suggesting that Piso was exploited by his co-conspirators.

Question 31

Who was Gaius Calpurnius Piso?

Answer 31

A Senator who became the figurehead of an assassination plot against Nero AD 65.

Question 32

What can be assumed of the initial conspirators?

Answer 32

1. They were looking more to capitalise on circumstances than engineer them themselves, 2. That 'agitation about the time and place for the slaughter' (Annals, 15.50) only took place once Faenius Rufus, the Praetorian co-Prefect came on board, 3. The conspirators were prone to indecision, suggesting that many were not inclined to bloodshed at first.

Question 33

What other issues did the conspiracy face, in terms of factionalism?

Answer 33

1. They were concerned what would follow Nero's removal, 2. Piso's party wasn't the only faction: Tacitus mentions the worry that another Senator, Lucius Silanus, might assume 'a command which would be readily offered to him by people whom the conspiracy had not touched' (Annals 15.52).

Question 34

What was the eventual plan for the assassination?

Answer 34

1. Piso and his associates waited until the festival of Ceres (12-19 April), 2. Flavius Scaevinus emerged as the would-be primary assailant. He was to stab Nero, with a specially procured dagger, 3. Piso would ready himself with Claudius' surviving daughter Antonia, 4. Tacitus acknowledges that the details surrounding Antonia's involvement are somewhat suspect, citing the Elder Pliny as his source (Annals 15.53), 5. If true, however, it is a good example of the importance of blood legitimacy, and the use of imperial women to acquire it.

Question 35

What led to the failing of the Pisonian conspiracy?

Answer 35

1. A freedman of Scaevinus, Milichus, betrayed the plot (Annals 15.54), 2. Scaevinus' rapid arrest led to others being named, including Seneca, although there is no evidence of his involvement; he might have been included to please Nero (Annals 15.56).

Question 36

What does Tacitus think of the conspirators?

Answer 36

1. Tacitus (15.57) condemns the speed in which those arrested gave up their co-conspirators, 2. Though this speed may simply indicate that events had escalated beyond the capabilities of those involved.

Question 37

How ended Gaius Calpurnius Piso?

Answer 37

1. Despite being urged by some to make a play for power by heading for the Praetorian camp and attempting to win their loyalty, 2. Piso actually locked himself inside his home, eventually taking his life when soldeirs arrived to arrest him (Annals 15.59).

Question 38

What does Nero do in the advent of this conspiracy?

Answer 38

1. Uses it as an excuse to execute dozens of senators and equestrians, 2. This was highly visible means of reasserting his authority and the confiscated property provided much needed funds.

Question 39

What event happened 18-19 July AD 64?

Answer 39

The Great Fire of Rome (Tacitus, Annals 38-44; Suetonius, Nero 38).

Question 40

What amount of destruction was caused by the Great Fire of Rome?

Answer 40

Only four of the fourteen Augustan districts were left untouched, and three districts were completely levelled.

Question 41

What are the sources opinions on Nero's involvement in the Great Fire of Rome?

Answer 41

1. Tacitus states that various authors attributed it to both chance and the princeps' cunning (15.38), 2. Suetonius (Nero 38) staunchly blames Nero: '... pretending to be disgusted by the drab old buildings and narrow winding streets of Rome, he brazenly set fire to the city...' 3. Suetonius then claims that Nero entered a tower in the Gardens of Maecenas and sang about the fall of Troy.

Question 42

What does Tacitus assess as being a potential cause of the fire?

Answer 42

1. Focuses on the susceptibility of Rome to fire and the panic and selfishness of the people during this event, 2. States that Nero was actually at Antium when the fire broke out, only returning to Rome when the Palatine Hill itself was threatened. 3. Tacitus also, however, records the rumour that spread about Nero's singing of Troy's destruction, and at times Tacitus' narrative is suspicious of Nero's part in the affair, suggesting that, even if he didn't start it, he may have allowed the fire to clear areas of Rome which he hoped to redevelop in the construction of his great project: the Domus Aurea ('Golden house').

Question 43

What does Tacitus say Nero did to help the people of Rome during the fire?

Answer 43

Opened up his private gardens to accommodate the refugees and brought in supplies from Ostia.

Question 44

What does Tacitus say of Nero's building regulations?

Answer 44

1. Tacitus notes that the building regulations and order that Nero imposed on the city were welcomed for their practicality as well as for bringing lustre and reminders of martial glory to the city, 2. For example the triumphal arch.

Question 45

What coinage displays Nero's building programmes?

Answer 45

Sestertius showing Triumphal Arch of Nero Date: C. AD 64, Obverse: Laureate head of Nero (obese); words reading 'Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, pontifex maximus, with tribunician power, victorious commander of the fatherland', Reverse: Ornate triumphal arch, seen from right to left. Nero in four horse chariot on top, accompanied by Victory (right) and Peace (left). Figure of Mars in niche on side of arch, holding spear and shield; SC (by decree of the senate), Significance: Commemorates Nero's arch (erected between 58 and 62) for Corbulo's Armenian campaigns; though Corbulo was the commanding general, the glory transfers to Nero as the overall commander of the army.

Question 46

Why is the triumphal arch built under Nero problematic?

Answer 46

Nero assumed the glory due to the general Corbulo, although his intentions were to mirror Augustus.

Question 47

What is a potential positive of the Great Fire of Rome?

Answer 47

The Great Fire of Rome, in many ways, facilitated the building projects of later emperors, so although it was a tragedy at the time, it brought about the Rome that would endure for centuries.

Question 48

Who was Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo?

Answer 48

Dates: C. AD 7-67 Perhaps the leading Roman general of the Claudian and the Neronian periods, renowned for both military and diplomatic skills, as well as being a strict, old-fashioned disciplinarian. Between 54 and 63, Corbulo campaigned in Armenia and Syria to deal with rebellions and political issues. He was ordered to commit suicide in AD 67 by Nero, who was allegedly concerned by his success and popularity.

Question 49

What rebellions occurred under Nero?

Answer 49

1. The second half of Nero's reign saw a number of Roman provinces exhibiting signs of discontent with Roman rule (Dio RH, 63.22.1), 2. Areas of Britain rebelled under Boudicca in AD 61 (with further uprisings in late AD 68 and early 69), 3. Judaea rebelled in AD 66 (in an uprising that really lasted until 73 when Masada fell), 4. The most terrifying from the Roman perspective: the rebellion in Gaul, headed by Gaius Julius Vindex. This eventually led to Nero's downfall and death. Unfortuanetly the Annals break off in AD 66, so we do not have Tacitus' record of the rebellion and its consequences.

Question 50

What does Suetonius say of the Gaul rebellion?

Answer 50

Suetonius (Nero, 40) sees the revolt as divine retribution for Nero's mismanagement of the empire.

Question 51

How does Dio Cassius present Vindex?

Answer 51

1. Vindex is presented as a suitably heroic figurehead: 2. '... a man strong in physique and shrewd in intelligence, skilled in warfare and not lacking in courage to meet any big challenge. He also had a passionate love of freedom and boundless ambition'

Question 52

Who was Gaius Julius Vindex?

Answer 52

Died AD 68 A romanised Gaul from a leading family of Aquitania. A senator and governor of Gallia Lugdunensis, he led a revolt against Nero in early spring AD 68.

Question 53

What speech does Dio write, unusually direct, to Vindex?

Answer 53

1. Reiterates many of his early criticisms of Nero, turning Vindex into a spokesperson for judgement as well as retribution, 2. the final words 'Rescue yourselves and rescue the Romans as well! Liberate the entire world!' (RH 63.22.6) present Vindex as acting for the common good.

Question 54

What coinage is used as propaganda for Vindex?

Answer 54

Denarius of Vindex Date: AD 68 Obverse: Victory standing on a globe, with a wreath in her right hand and a palm in her left; words reading 'Salvation of the human race', Reverse: Oak wreath; SPQR (Senate and the People of Rome) Significance: Vindex presents his rebellion as being for the benefit of the whole Roman world.

Question 55

What two key ideas about Vindex's revolt are made clear in the coin's inscription? What does Suetonius write in counter to this?

Answer 55

1. That it was motivated by a desire for freedom from oppression, 2. Secondly, his claim to have acted for the Senate and People of Rome, suggesting that the revolt was about the nature of governance rather than nationalism, 3. Suetonius', contrary, constant use of the term 'Gallic' does not agree (e.g. Nero 41)

Question 56

What was Nero doing when the revolt started? Why?

Answer 56

1. Nero was in Neapolis when the revolt started (Suetonius, Nero 40) and did nothing for eight days, 2. On the surface at least, Vindex's rebellion may not have seemed that serious: Vindex was governor of a Gallic province without a legionary garrison and Nero had no reason to doubt the loyalty of the local urban cohorts at Lugdunum or the nearest legions in Upper Germany under the newly appointed Lucius Verginius Rufus, 3. Nero seemed to have welcomed the rebellion as it offered a ready-made excuse to levy fines and order executions (Dio RH 63.26.3; Suetonius, Nero 40), 4. Evidently, either through lack of foresight or his over-confidence, Nero was seemingly untroubled by the 'call to freedom' from Gaul - according to Dio he chose this moment to announce his development of a new type of water organ (63.26.5).

Question 57

What did Rufus' troops want of him? How did he respond?

Answer 57

Rufus' troops suggested that he become emperor himself. He refused referring the matter of who should govern to 'the Senate and People of Rome' (Dio, 63.25.2). The Senate chose to endorse Galba officially and declared Nero a public enemy (RH 63.27.2b), doubtless justifying this with the popularity of Vindex's rebellion and the deep resentment of Nero (Suetonius, Nero 45).

Question 58

When did Nero's attitude to the rebellions change?

Answer 58

1. Changed when Servius Sulpicius Galba, legate of Hispania Tarraconensis since 60, was declared emperor by his soldiers on 9th June AD 68, following Vindex's request for help, 2. Dio notes that Vindex was not after supreme power, but supported Galba (63.23.1), 3. This news shocked Nero (Suetonius, Nero 42; Dio, RH 63.27.1). He now desperately needed to take action, Suetonius (Nero 44) alleges that he merely packed up his stage equipment and selected concubines. Such parody nevertheless had a kernel of truth that Nero did little of practical value in the aftermath of the revolt.

Question 59

What did Verginius Rufus do in response to the Gaulian rebellion?

Answer 59

Gathered the Roman forces of Upper Germany and advanced into Gaul as far as Vesontio. Despite planning to meet with Vindex, the ill discipline and aggressive nature of Rufus' soldiers won out and they fell upon Vindex's army (Dio, RH 63.24.3). The slaughter that resulted, with 20,000 of Vindex's men dead, prompted Vindex's suicide.

Question 60

How did Galba view himself?

Answer 60

Galba saw himself as a liberator, a man who would restore Rome to her true-self.

Question 61

What coinage shows Galba's view of himself?

Answer 61

The Denarius of Galba Date: C. AD 68 Obverse: Female bust with hair in a small knot above neck; words reading 'liberty to the people', Reverse: Pileus between two daggers; words reading 'restored', Significance: Demonstrates the justification for his rebellion in the need for restoring liberty to the Roman people. Nero is thus by implication a tyrant.

Question 62

How does Dio Cassius present Nero's reign's end?

Answer 62

1. Nero stripped of all support, elected to flee Rome, 2. Dio presents his final moment in a suitably theatrical manner, 3. Nero assumes a tragic role (63.28.5) with the notorious final words 'Jupiter, what an artist perishes in me!' (63.29.2), 4. Thus, while Vindex's rebellion itself achieved very little, it was the initial domino in the cascade that led to Nero's final downfall and the end of the Julio-Claudians.

Question 63

How does Neronian court poet Calpurnius Siculus present Nero?

Answer 63

Praises Nero as a god and may suggest that he believed he was a god. However, this is more of a literary convention in the mode of the Augustan poets than evidence of the imperial cult's relations to Nero.

Question 64

Who did Nero blame for the Great Fire of Rome? What was his approach to non-traditional religion?

Answer 64

1. Nero was entirely intolerant of non-traditional religions, 2. His formal introduction into the priestly colleges, echoing Augustus, partly justified this outlook, 3. Tacitus (Annals 15.44) emphasises that Nero scapegoated Christians in the aftermath of the Great Fire AD 64, 4. This may have just been out of convenience; blaming an already marginalised group within Roman society would remove any culpability for the fire from himself.

Question 65

What coinage shows Nero's religious ties?

Answer 65

Aureus of Nero Date: AD 50-54 Obverse: Draped bust of Nero; words reading 'Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, leader of the younger generation', Reverse: Ladle above tripod to left; augur's wand above dishes (used in sacrifices) to right; words reading 'Co-opted as an additional member of every college of priests, by decree of the senate'

Question 66

What was Nero's involvement in the state's administration?

Answer 66

1. It is difficult to pinpoint the chronology of any administrative amendments he did make, we may speculate that many date in the quinquenniumm, 2. Thereafter, the sources highlight his self-indulgent behaviour, while the maintenance of the empire was handed over to his subordinates, 3. This allowed the emperor to focus on the most important thing to him; pleasure, 4. Overall, he did not fundamentally alter the mechanisms of the government or administration.

Question 67

What acts of humiliation does Tacitus record Nero enforcing?

Answer 67

He writes that Nero would bring the descendants of noble families to perform on stage (Annals 14.14).

Question 68

How does Nero's attitude to the Senate change over his reign?

Answer 68

1. Nero's early pandering is replaced by a viciousness that the sources revel in recording, 2. Despite everything, the Senate remained remarkably compliant with Nero throughout his reign, even coming to meet him in 'festive garb' following the announcement of Agrippina's death (Annals 14.13).

Question 69

Which Senator is highlighted as being particularly strong opposition to Nero?

Answer 69

Thrasea Paetus. Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus was a senator who was a stoic, renowned for his political morality and republican statments. Died AD 66.

Question 70

What does Tacitus record of Thrasea Paetus?

Answer 70

1. His willingness to speak out marks the beginning of a phenomenon which is usually called Stoic opposition, 2. Paetis is used as the model of senatorial virtue. In example, when Nero announces the death of Agrippina, Paetus stands and pointedly exits the Senate (Annals, 14.12). However noble this gesture, even Tacitus acknowledges it merely 'provided grounds for danger to himself, but did not present the others with an entry to freedom', 3. His death is marked in an extended passage (Annals 16.21-35).

Question 71

What did Nero use the equestrians for?

Answer 71

1. As a class, Nero did perhaps see them as a useful alternative to the Senate, 2. Equestrians featured heavily among his entourage of paid 'fans', and specially trained applauders earned 40,000 sesterces a performance (Suetonius, Nero 20).

Question 72

Who was the most prominent equestrian under Nero?

Answer 72

Gaius Ofonius Tigellinus, C. AD 10-69, the joint commander of the Praetorian Guard from 62-68.

Question 73

How does Tacitus treat Tigellinus in his writing?

Answer 73

1. Is scathing, 2. Claims that Tigellinus corrupted Nero and introduced him to every kind of depravity before finally deserting him when his fall became inevitable, 3. Tigellinus is, thus, an example of how the ambitious and unscrupulous individual could prosper under the principate.

Question 74

How were Nero's relations with the plebs?

Answer 74

1. Tacitus is typically judgemental of the plebs (Annals 14.14), but Nero clearly understood how to win their affection, 2. Suetonius records that Nero provided immense variety of entertainments (Nero 11), 3. Nero also made the point of being generous through the practice of largesse, as had all the Julio-Claudians before him.

Question 75

What coinage shows Nero's generosity to the plebs?

Answer 75

Sestertius of Nero Date: AD 64 Obverse: Laureate bust of Nero wearing aegis; words reading 'Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, pontifex maximus, with tribunician power, victorious commander, father of the fatherland', Reverse: Nero in a toga on a platform with the prefect of the corn dole behind him. An attendant in the centre hands a token to a standing citizen in a toga. Minerva stands behind with owl and spear in hand, beside the flat roof of a building; words reading 'He gives a second handout to the people' Significance: Commemorates Nero's grants of the corn dole.