Definitions

Question 1

Development

Answer 1

refers to formal and planned efforts to help employees acquire the knowledge, skills, and abilities required to perform future job responsibilities and for the long-term achievement of individual career goals and organizational objectives.

The goal is to prepare individuals for promotions and future jobs as well as additional job responsibilities. This process might consist of extensive programs, such as leadership development, and might include seminars and workshops, job rotation, coaching, and other assignments. The goal is to prepare employees for future responsibilities and often for managerial careers.

Question 2

Human capital

Answer 2

Human capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities of an organization’s employees

The primary objective of training and development is to develop and maximize an organization’s human capital

It has been found to be a key determinant of an organization’s performance and one of the most important resources for competitive advantage. Human capital development is one of the top areas of concern for organizations, and increased training and development for employees is one of the top strategies for developing human capital.

Question 3

Instructional systems design model

Answer 3

The instructional systems design (ISD) model depicts training and development as a rational and scientific process that consists of three major steps: needs analysis, design and delivery, and evaluation.

The ISD model is a streamlined version of an earlier model of instructional design known as ADDIE, in which each letter represents a different action: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation.

According to the ISD model, the training process begins with a performance gap. A performance gap is something in the organization that is not quite right or is of concern to management. Perhaps customer complaints are up, quality is low, market share is being lost, or employees are frustrated by management or technology. Or perhaps there is a performance problem that is making it difficult for employees or departments to achieve goals or meet standards.

Question 4

Intersectionality

Answer 4

the idea that our different identity characteristics, such as our gender, age, ethnicity, and relative wealth or poverty—can interact to create compounding patterns of advantage or disadvantage, including our access to training.

Question 5

Performance management

Answer 5

the process of establishing performance goals and designing interventions and programs to motivate and develop employees to improve their performance and, ultimately, organization performance. This process signals to employees what is really important in the organization, ensures accountability for behaviour and results, and helps improve performance.

Performance management is not a single event, like a performance appraisal or a training program; rather, it is a comprehensive, ongoing, and continuous process that involves various activities and programs designed to develop employees and improve their performance.

Question 6

Pluralism

Answer 6

the holding of two or more offices or positions (such as benefices) at the same time

In a pluralist view, workers may hide knowledge because they fear that sharing knowledge might decrease their value and make them more vulnerable to layoffs. Hiding knowledge might also give a worker power that the worker can use to shape their working conditions or offset the greater organizational power of managers. Not applying training may reflect an expectation that the training will make a worker’s job more difficult or less satisfying.

Question 7

Skills mismatch

Answer 7

A skills mismatch (or shortage) means that an insufficient number of workers with the needed skills are available to satisfy the number of available jobs.

In other words, there is a mismatch between the skilled labour available and the market demand. The shortage of skilled trades is considered to be one of the barriers to Canada’s economic prosperity. According to the Conference Board of Canada, there will be a shortage of a million workers by 2020

Under the Canada Job Grant, employers can receive up to $10,000 to train each worker and workers can receive up to $15,000 to upgrade their skills and help them find a new or better job. Having skilled workers is critical to the growth and competitiveness of organizations as well as economic growth and prosperity. The skills gap and skills mismatch are a major concern of organizations today, and training and development is an important part of the solution to reduce the gap and ensure that employees have the knowledge and skills required by organizations today.

Question 8

Training

Answer 8

the action of teaching a person or animal a particular skill or type of behavior.

Question 9

Training bond

Answer 9

A training bond is a contract between the employer and employee that states that the employer will pay for the employee’s training as long as the employee remains with the organization for a minimum period of time upon completion of a training program

Some organizations try to ensure that they benefit from their training programs by having employees sign a training bond.

If the employee fails to remain for the agreed-upon period of time, then he/she must reimburse the organization for the cost of the training.

Question 10

Unitarism

Answer 10

Unitarism is a theory about how the world and organizations work. It emphasizes the cooperative nature of work and the undesirability of conflict. Its basic tenets are:

• an employee comes into the workplace to do an employer’s work,
• the employer’s agenda is the one that matters,
• the organization is held together by common objectives that unite managers and workers,
• there are no fundamental and/or irreconcilable conflicts between the interests of employers and employees, and
• conflict reflects miscommunication by managers and/or deviant behaviour by workers.

Question 11

Work-integrated learning

Answer 11

Providing students with work experience through internships, apprenticeships, and cooperative placements

In 2017, the federal government introduced the Student Work-Integrated Learning Program, which provides employers in the STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) and business sectors with payroll subsidies for hiring students. The goal is to ensure that post-secondary students have the skills required by organizations when they graduate which will help to close the skills gap.

Question 12

ACT theory (adaptive character of thought)

Answer 12

Learning takes place in three stages that are known as declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge or proceduralization

What are the implications of ACT theory for learning and training? First, ACT theory recognizes that learning is a sequential and stage-like process that involves three important stages. Second, it indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages. And third, motivational interventions might be more or less effective depending on the stage of learning.

Question 13

Chaining

Answer 13

Part of the conditioning process

Chaining is the second concept and involves the reinforcement of entire sequences of a task. During shaping, an individual learns each separate step of a task and is reinforced for each successive step.

The goal is to learn to combine each step and perform the entire response. This combination is what chaining involves, and it is accomplished by reinforcing entire sequences of the task and eventually reinforcing only the complete task after each of the steps have been learned.

Question 14

Declarative knowledge

Answer 14

The first stage of learning is called declarative knowledge (ACT theory). It involves the learning of knowledge, facts, and information.

For example, think of what it was like when you learned how to drive a car. At first, you acquired a great deal of information, such as what to do when you get into the car, how to start the car and put it in gear, how to change gears if it is a standard shift, and so on. These pieces or units of information are called chunks.

Question 15

Formal learning

Answer 15

Learning that is structured and planned by the organization

Formal learning has an expressed goal set by the organization and a defined process that is structured and sponsored by the organization.

Learning that involves formal, planned, and structured activities or the organized transfer of work-related skills, knowledge, and information. It includes activities such as classroom instruction, structured on-the-job programs, workshops, seminars, e-learning, and courses offered at external institutions.

Question 16

Generalization

Answer 16

Part of the conditioning process

The third concept is generalization, which means that the conditioned response occurs in circumstances different from those during learning.

Thus, while a trainee might have learned a task through shaping and chaining, he or she might not be able to perform the task in a different situation or outside of the classroom. To achieve generalization, the trainer must provide trainees with opportunities to perform the task in a variety of situations.

Question 17

Informal learning

Answer 17

Informal learning is learning that occurs naturally as part of work and is not planned or designed by the organization. Informal learning is spontaneous, immediate, and task-specific.

Learning that occurs primarily spontaneously and outside of formal, designed activities; the unstructured transfer of work-related skills, knowledge, and information, usually during work. It is usually initiated by learners and it can involve asking co-workers for help, ad hoc problem solving, incidental conversations, seeking out expert knowledge on the Internet, some types of coaching and mentoring, group problem-solving, and lunch-and-learn sessions.

Question 18

Knowledge compilation

Answer 18

The second stage of learning is called knowledge compilation (ACT theory). Knowledge compilation involves integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the task.

The learner acquires the ability to translate the declarative knowledge acquired in the first stage into action. During this stage, performance becomes faster and more accurate. For example, when learning how to drive a car, you are able to get into the car and begin to drive without having to think about every single thing you must do. In other words, what was once many single and independent tasks during the declarative stage (e.g., put on your seatbelt, lock the car, adjust the seat, adjust the mirror, start the car, etc.) is now one smooth sequence of tasks. You get into the car and do all of the tasks as part of an integrated sequence.

Question 19

Kolb’s learning style

Answer 19

Has to do with the way people gather information and process and evaluate it during the learning process.

Kolb’s four learning modes:

Converging
Diverging
Assimilating
Accommodating

according to Kolb, an individual’s learning style is a function of how they gather information and how they process information. For example, a converging learning style combines abstract conceptualization and active experimentation (thinking and doing). People with this learning style focus on problem solving and the practical application of ideas and theories. A diverging learning style combines concrete experience and reflective observation (feeling and watching). People with this orientation view concrete situations from different points of view and generate alternative courses of action. An assimilating style combines abstract conceptualization and reflective observation (thinking and watching). These people like to process and integrate information and ideas into logical forms and theoretical models. Finally, an accommodating learning style combines concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling and doing). People with this learning style prefer hands-on experience and like to learn by being involved in new and challenging experiences.

Question 20

Learning

Answer 20

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills. It involves a change of state that makes possible a corresponding change in one’s behaviour.

Learning is the result of experiences that enable one to exhibit newly acquired behaviours. Learning occurs “when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling, finds the new pattern gratifying or useful, and incorporates it into the repertoire of behaviours.” When a behaviour has been learned, it can be thought of as a skill. Apprentices who participated in Abbott’s microelectronics manufacturer apprenticeship program learned to operate and monitor high-technology automated equipment, acquired skills to improve processes and automation, and enhanced their skills in communication, science and mathematics, quality regulations, critical thinking, and problem solving.

Question 21

Locus of control

Answer 21

Locus of control refers to people’s beliefs about whether their behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces.

Persons with an internal locus of control believe that the opportunity to control their own behaviour resides within themselves. Persons with an external locus of control believe that external forces determine their behaviour. Thus, internals perceive stronger links between the effort they put into something and the outcome or performance level they achieve. Persons with an internal locus of control tend to have higher levels of training motivation.

Question 22

Procedural knowledge

Answer 22

The final stage of learning is called procedural knowledge or proceduralization (ACT Theory). During this stage, the learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic and habitual.

In other words, the task can now be performed without much thought. The transition from knowledge acquisition to application is complete. This is what most of us experience when we drive. We get into a car and drive without giving much thought about what we are doing. The task of driving becomes habitual and automatic.

Question 23

Resource allocation theory

Answer 23

Individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task

Resource allocation theory explains what happens during each stage (of ACT theory) and recognizes that individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task. Performance of a new task is determined by individual differences in attentional and cognitive resources, the requirements of the task (task complexity), and self-regulatory activities (e.g., self-monitoring and self-evaluation) used to allocate attention across tasks.

Question 24

Self-regulation

Answer 24

The third component of social cognitive theory

Self-regulation means managing one’s own behaviour through a series of internal processes

Self-regulation is a goal-oriented cyclical process in which trainees set goals and establish a plan for learning, develop learning strategies, focus their attention on learning, monitor their learning outcomes, and modify their behaviours over time.

Question 25

Communities of practice

Answer 25

Groups of employees who share similar concerns and problems and meet regularly to share their experiences and knowledge, learn from each other, and identify new approaches for working and solving problems The core principles of communities of practice are that learning is social and people learn from each other while working together on the job. Thus, people in communities of practice share information and knowledge and in the process learn with and from each other. Members ask each other for help, exchange best practices, and share information Communities of practice can exist within a department in an organization as well as across departments and regions and even include members from different organizations. Some communities of practice meet regularly face-to-face, while others use technology to communicate. The technology used for knowledge sharing and communities of practices is typically known as Web 2.0 technology.

Question 26

Trainee cost

Answer 26

Also known as Trainee compensation The cost of the salaries and benefits paid to trainees while they are attending a training program Trainee compensation refers to the cost of the salaries and benefits paid to trainees while they are attending a training program. This might also include the cost of replacing employees while they are in training. The logic behind this cost is simply that employees must be paid while they are not working and this is a cost of the training program.

Question 27

Shaping

Answer 27

Part of the conditioning process Shaping refers to the reinforcement of each step in the process until it is mastered, and then withdrawing the reinforcer until the next step is mastered. Shaping is extremely important for learning complex behaviour. Behaviour modelling training is a training method that makes extensive use of this concept by rewarding trainees for the acquisition of separate skills performed sequentially.

Question 28

Conditioning process

Answer 28

The conditioning process involves linking desired behaviour to pleasurable consequences. This is accomplished through three connected concepts: shaping, chaining, and generalization.

Question 29

Social learning

Answer 29

The central premise of social cognitive theory is social learning, which involves learning through interactions with others. Social learning can be either formal (e.g., mentoring programs) or informal (e.g., collaborative work). According to social cognitive theory, people learn by observing the behaviour of others, making choices about different courses of action to pursue, and managing their own behaviour in the process of learning. We observe the actions of others and make note of the reinforcing or punishing outcomes of their behaviour. We then imitate what we have observed and expect certain consequences to follow. Considerable research has shown that people observe and reproduce the actions and attitudes of others.

Question 30

Workplace learning

Answer 30

Workplace learning is the process of acquiring job-related knowledge and skills through formal training programs and informal social interactions among employees. Although the focus of this book is formal training and development programs, it is important to recognize that employees also acquire information and learn through informal interactions with others and from their experiences on the job. In fact, it is generally recognized that when it comes to workplace learning, about 70 percent comes from on-the-job experiences and assignments, 20 percent from relationships and interactions with others, and 10 percent from formal learning activities and events. This breakdown is known as the 70–20–10 model.

Question 31

Competency

Answer 31

A competency is a cluster of related KSAs that forms a major part of a job and that enables the job holder to perform effectively. Competencies are behaviours that distinguish effective performers from ineffective performers. Competencies can be knowledge, skills, behaviour, or personality traits. Examples of competencies for managers include setting goals and standards, coaching, making decisions, and organizing.

Question 32

Compliance training

Answer 32

Training programs that are mandated by government legislation and regulations as well as industry and organization policies For example, occupational health and safety policies in British Columbia require employers to take steps to prevent or minimize workplace bullying and harassment. As a result, employees and supervisors must be trained on how to recognize the potential for bullying and harassment, how to respond to bullying and harassment, and procedures for reporting incidents of bullying and harassment.

Question 33

Group discussion method

Answer 33

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods resembles face-to-face interview technique, e.g., structured or unstructured, formal or informal, or somewhere in between can be focused on job (role) analysis, group problem analysis, group goal setting, or any number of group tasks or themes, e.g., “leadership training needs of the board” uses one or several of the familiar group facilitating techniques: brainstorming, nominal group process, force fields, consensus rankings, organizational mirroring, simulation, and sculpting

Question 34

Interview method

Answer 34

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods can be formal or casual, structured or unstructured, or somewhere in between * may be used with a sample of a particular group (board, staff, committee) or conducted with everyone concerned * can be done in person, by phone, at the work site, or away from it

Question 35

Nine basic needs analysis

Answer 35

``` observation questionnaires key consultation print media interviews group discussion tests records and reports work samples ```

Question 36

Key consultation method

Answer 36

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods secures information from those persons who, by virtue of their formal or informal standing, are in a good position to know what the training needs of a particular group are: a. board chairman b. related service providers c. members of professional associations d. individuals from the service population

Question 37

Learning culture

Answer 37

A learning culture refers to the attitudes and practices within the organization regarding the importance placed on organizational learning and employee development. In a similar vein, a continuous learning culture is a culture in which members of an organization believe that knowledge and skill acquisition are part of their job responsibilities and that learning is an important part of work life in the organization.

Question 38

Need

Answer 38

While a need is a gap between the way things are (current results) versus the way they should be (desired results), needs analysis is the process to identify gaps or deficiencies in individual, group, or organizational performance. The way to identify performance gaps is to solicit information from those who are affected by the performance problem. A needs analyst gathers information from key people in an organization about the organization, jobs, and employees to determine the nature of performance problems.

Question 39

Needs analysis

Answer 39

Needs analysis is a process designed to identify gaps or deficiencies in employee and organizational performance. Needs analysis is concerned with the gaps between actual performance and desired performance. It is a “formal process of identifying needs as gaps between current and desired results, placing those needs in priority order based on the cost to meet each need versus the cost of ignoring it, and selecting the most important needs (problems or opportunities) for reduction or elimination.”

Question 40

Observation method

Answer 40

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods can be as technical as time–motion studies or as functionally or behaviourally specific as observing a new board or staff member interacting during a meeting may be as unstructured as walking through an agency’s offices on the lookout for evidence of communication barriers can be used normatively to distinguish between effective and ineffective behaviours, organizational structures, and/or process

Question 41

Organizational analysis

Answer 41

``` Organizational analysis involves the study of the entire organization: its strategy environment resources organizational context ``` Key to an organizational analysis is finding out if a training program is aligned with an organization’s strategy, the existence of any constraints, and the extent of support for the delivery and success of a training program. An organizational analysis can help identify potential constraints and problems that can derail a training program so that they can be dealt with prior to or during the design and delivery of a costly program. Let’s take a closer look at each of the components of an organizational analysis.

Question 42

Person analysis

Answer 42

the process of studying employee behaviour and performance to determine whether performance meets the work standards. A standard is the desired level of performance—ideally, the quantifiable output of a specific job. A person analysis examines how well an employee performs the critical tasks and their knowledge, skills, and abilities. The objective is to provide answers to these kinds of questions: How well does the employee perform the tasks? Who, within the organization, needs training? What kind of training do they need?

Question 43

Needs Analysis Process

Answer 43

What is the CONCERN? Is it IMPORTANT? If yes, CONSULT STAKEHOLDERS. If no, terminate COLLECT INFORMATION ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS, TASK ANALYSIS, & PERSON ANALYSIS OUTCOMES

Question 44

Print media method

Answer 44

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods can include professional journals, legislative news/notes, industry “rags,” trade magazines, in-house publications

Question 45

Questionnaire method

Answer 45

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods may be in the form of surveys or polls of a random or stratified sample of respondents, or an enumeration of an entire “population” can use a variety of question formats: open ended, projective, forced choice, priority ranking can take alternative forms such as Q-sorts, or slip-sorts, rating scales, either predesigned or self-generated by respondent(s) may be self-administered (by mail) under controlled or uncontrolled conditions, or may require the presence of an interpreter or assistant

Question 46

Records and reports method

Answer 46

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods can consist of organizational charts, planning documents, policy manuals, audits, and budget reports employee records (grievances, turnover, accidents, etc.) includes minutes of meetings, weekly/monthly program reports, memoranda, agency service records, program evaluation studies

Question 47

Resource analysis

Answer 47

A resource analysis involves identifying the resources available in the organization that might be required to design and implement training and development programs. Training programs are costly and require considerable resources. In addition to the financial costs, the design and implementation of a training program requires considerable time and expertise. Not all organizations have the expertise required to design and deliver training programs. In addition, the human resource staff might not have the time required to design new training programs. Training programs also require materials, equipment, and facilities, which can also be expensive.

Question 48

Task analysis

Answer 48

A task analysis consists of a description of the activities or work operations performed on a job and the conditions under which these activities are performed. A task analysis reveals the tasks required for a person to perform a job and the knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that are required to perform the tasks successfully. There are six steps involved in a task analysis: 1. Identify the target jobs. 2. Obtain a job description. 3. Develop rating scales to rate the importance and difficulty of each task and the frequency with which it is performed. 4. Survey a sample of job incumbents. 5. Analyze and interpret the information. 6. Provide feedback on the results.

Question 49

Test method

Answer 49

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods are a hybridized form of questionnaire can be very functionally oriented (like observations) to test a board, staff, or committee member’s proficiency may be used to sample learned ideas and facts can be administered with or without the presence of an assistant

Question 50

Training transfer climate

Answer 50

Training transfer climate refers to characteristics in the work environment that can either facilitate or inhibit the application of training on the job. A strong training transfer climate is one in which there are cues that remind employees to apply training material on the job, positive consequences such as feedback and rewards for applying training on the job, and supervisor and peer support for the use of newly acquired skills and abilities. The training transfer climate has been found to be a strong predictor of training effectiveness and of whether trainees apply newly trained skills on the job.

Question 51

Work samples method

Answer 51

One of the nine basic needs analysis methods are similar to observation but in written form can be products generated in the course of the organization’s work, e.g., ad layouts, program proposals, market analyses, letters, training designs, or written responses to a hypothetical but relevant case study provided by the consultant

Question 52

Active practice

Answer 52

Providing trainees with opportunities to practise performing a training task or using knowledge during training An example of a training program that includes practice is IBM’s Global Sales School, which prepares new sellers with the skills they need to differentiate IBM and win in the marketplace. The program focuses on learning by doing and includes practising sales skills, writing proposals, developing solutions, prospecting and identifying opportunities, negotiating and closing deals, and contributing to account and territory planning. Trainees also practise sales meetings that involve mock client meetings with experienced IBM sellers who play the role of a client.

Question 53

Adaptive expertise

Answer 53

The ability to use knowledge and skills across a range of tasks, settings, and situations Adaptive expertise requires a much deeper understanding of a task because the learner has to understand how to use his/her knowledge and skills in new and novel situations. This has important implications for the design of training programs A key factor in training design for adaptive expertise is active learning. Active learning is an approach to training that gives trainees control over their learning so that they become active participants in their own learning experience.

Question 54

Adaptive tasks

Answer 54

Tasks that differ from those worked on during training and require different solutions An important part of effective EMT (Error-management instructions)

Question 55

Six pre-training interventions

Answer 55

(1) attentional advice (2) metacognitive strategies (3) advance organizers (4) goal orientation (5) preparatory information (6) pre-practice briefs.

Question 56

Advance organizers

Answer 56

One of the six pre-training interventions. Activities that provide trainees with a structure or framework to help them assimilate and integrate information acquired during practice. Advance organizers are structures or frameworks to help trainees assimilate and integrate training content. In other words, they provide trainees with a structure or framework for organizing the training material and for integrating it with their existing knowledge. Advance organizers can include outlines, text, diagrams, and graphic organizers. Research on advance organizers has found that they improve cognitive and skill-based learning, and that they are particularly useful for learning highly complex and factual material and for low-ability trainees.

Question 57

Analogical tasks

Answer 57

Tasks that are similar to those worked on during training An important part of effective EMT (Error-management instructions)

Question 58

Attentional advice

Answer 58

One of the six pre-training interventions Providing trainees with information about the task process and general task strategies that can help them learn and perform a task. Attentional advice involves providing trainees with information about the task process and general task strategies that can help them learn to perform a task. Attentional advice helps to focus or direct trainees’ attention on specific aspects of the training or practice session and task strategies and to assimilate the training material with existing knowledge. This can aid in learning a task, performing the task, and generalizing what is learned in practice to other situations in which the strategies can be applied. Attentional advice has been found to have positive effects on cognitive learning, skill-based learning, and affective learning.

Question 59

Automaticity

Answer 59

The performance of a skill to the point at which little attention from the brain is required to respond correctly Overlearning refers to learning something until the behaviour becomes automatic. In other words, trainees are provided with continued opportunities for practice even after they have mastered the task.

Question 60

Condition of practice

Answer 60

Practice conditions that are implemented before and during training to enhance the effectiveness of active practice and maximize learning and retention Practice conditions that can be implemented during training include: (1) massed or distributed practice, (2) whole or part learning, (3) overlearning, (4) task sequencing, and (5) feedback and knowledge of results. Massed versus distributed practice - How the segments of a training program are divided and whether the training is conducted in a single session (massed) or is divided into several sessions with breaks or rest periods between them (distributed) Whole versus part learning - Whether the training material is learned and practised at one time or one part at a time Overlearning - Continued practice even after trainees have mastered a task so that the behaviour becomes automatic Task sequencing - Dividing training material into an organized and logical sequence of sub-tasks Feedback and knowledge of results - Providing trainees with feedback and information about their performance on a training task

Question 61

Corrective feedback

Answer 61

Feedback that is meant to correct behaviour and performance During training, corrective feedback can be provided when trainees’ performance is below the standard to guide them to learn and improve new behaviours. This feedback should be designed to correct behaviour and performance. When incorrect responses are given, the feedback should include the correct response. Negative feedback (“You failed to acknowledge the client’s problem”) will not be perceived as punishing if the source is knowledgeable, friendly, trustworthy, and powerful enough to affect outcomes like promotions and it is accompanied by the correct response.

Question 62

Discovery learning

Answer 62

Exploratory/discovery learning Trainees are given the opportunity to explore and experiment with the training tasks to infer and learn the rules, principles, and strategies for effective task performance But how do you design a training program for active learning? Several design elements have been identified, including exploratory or discovery learning, error framing, and emotion control. Exploratory/discovery learning provides trainees with the opportunity to explore and experiment with training tasks to infer and learn the rules, principles, and strategies for effective task performance. By contrast, proceduralized instruction provides trainees with step-by-step instructions on how to perform a task and the rules, principles, and strategies for effective performance.

Question 63

Error-management training (EMT)

Answer 63

Training that explicitly encourages trainees to make errors during training and to learn from them Error-management training (EMT) involves explicitly encouraging trainees to make errors during training and to learn from them. This can be done by providing trainees with only basic information or minimal instructions about how to perform a task. As a result, trainees try out different approaches when practising a task, which means that they will inevitably make errors. In contrast, when the training is error-avoidant, it is highly structured and trainees are given detailed step-by-step instructions on how to perform a task so they are less likely to make errors. If they do make an error, the trainer intervenes and corrects them. There are two key characteristics of EMT. First, trainees are provided with only basic training-relevant information and introduced to various problems that they are told to explore and solve on their own (active exploration). Second, because making errors can be frustrating, trainees are told to expect errors and to frame them positively.

Question 64

Learner engagement

Answer 64

The extent to which learners are cognitively, physically, and emotionally immersed in the training content and the learning process How a training program is designed not only affects learning, it also influences learner engagement Training programs that include opportunities for active practice not only maximize learning but also facilitate learner engagement and a change in behaviour.

Question 65

Metacognition

Answer 65

One of the six pre-training interventions A self-regulatory process that helps people guide their learning and performance Ways in which trainees can be instructed to self-regulate their learning of a task. Trainees can also benefit more from practice if they know how to regulate their learning through a process known as metacognition. Metacognition has been described as “thinking about one’s thinking” and refers to a self-regulatory process that helps people guide their learning and performance. Metacognition allows people to assess and adjust their progress and strategies while learning to perform a task. Metacognition consists of two primary functions: monitoring and control. Monitoring involves identifying the task, checking and evaluating one’s progress, and predicting the outcomes of that progress. Control involves decisions about where to allocate one’s resources, the specific steps to complete a task, the speed and intensity required to work on a task, and the prioritization of activities.

Question 66

Pre-training interventions

Answer 66

Activities or material provided before a training program or practice session to improve the potential for learning as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of practice during training six pre-training interventions: (1) attentional advice, (2) metacognitive strategies (3) advance organizers (4) goal orientation (5) preparatory information (6) pre-practice briefs Conditions of practice that are implemented prior to a training program to prepare trainees for active practice are known as pre-training interventions. Pre-training interventions are activities or material provided before a training program or practice session to improve the potential for learning as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of practice during training.

Question 67

Proceduralized learning

Answer 67

Organizing facts and information into a smooth behavioural sequence Many techniques are available to measure it, but all are more complex to develop and use than declarative learning measures. As a result, rare are the organizations that measure procedural learning in their evaluations of training.

Question 68

Productive responses

Answer 68

The trainee actively uses the training content rather than passively watching, listening to, or imitating the trainer Research shows that learning and retention are best achieved through the use of training methods that promote productive responses from trainees and actively engage trainees in learning the training material, which is a key part of the mindfulness training program. Productive responses are those in which the trainee actively uses the training content rather than passively watching, listening to, or imitating the trainer. In addition, training methods that encourage active participation during training also enhance learner engagement and learning.

Question 69

Routine expertise

Answer 69

The ability to reproduce specific behaviours in similar settings and situations The traditional approach to training is to teach trainees to reproduce specific behaviours in similar settings and situations. This is known as routine expertise, and many training programs are designed for this purpose. However, routine expertise is not as effective for complex jobs that involve novel, unstructured, ill-defined, or changing task demands and work environments.

Question 70

Task sequencing

Answer 70

One of the conditions of pratice during training Dividing training material into an organized and logical sequence of sub-tasks Task sequencing has to do with the manner in which the learning tasks are organized and arranged. The basic idea is that learning can be improved by dividing the training material into an organized sequence of sub-tasks. The idea behind task sequencing was proposed by Robert Gagné, who argued that practice is not enough for learning to occur. Rather, what is most important is that the distinct sub-tasks are identified and arranged in a logical sequence. In this manner, a trainee will learn each successive sub-task before the total task is performed. The trainee learns to perform each step or task in the proper order or sequence.

Question 71

Training design

Answer 71

The process of preparing and planning events to facilitate learning training design involves many important decisions, such as whether to purchase a training program from a vendor or design it in-house, what content to include, what training methods to use, how to provide trainees with opportunities for practice, and what strategies to include to maximize the potential effects of practice on learning and retention. The starting point that connects the needs analysis to training design is writing training objectives. Training Design Activities 1. Write training objectives. 2. Decide to purchase or design a training program. 3. Create a request for proposal (RFP) to purchase training services and programs. 4. Determine the training content. 5. Decide on the training methods. 6. Incorporate active practice and conditions of practice into the training program. 7. Consider design elements for active learning if adaptive expertise is required.

Question 72

Training objective

Answer 72

A statement of what trainees are expected to be able to do after a training program A training objective is a statement that answers the question, What should trainees be able to do at the end of a training program? Put another way, an objective is the expected or intended outcome of training. Training objectives also describe the knowledge and skills to be acquired. The emphasis of training is usually on learning, on-the-job behaviour, and job performance. Learning involves the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, and attitudes, while performance involves the use of these new skills, knowledge, and attitudes on the job. Training objectives usually refer to the acquisition of knowledge and/or skills as well as behaviour and performance on the job. Training objectives are an important link between the needs analysis stage and the other stages of the training and development process. In addition to stating what employees will learn and be able to do following a training program, training objectives serve a number of purposes for trainees, trainers, and managers. Thus, it is important to write training objectives prior to designing a training program.

Question 73

Action learning

Answer 73

A training method in which trainees solve real-world problems and accept responsibility for the solution The aims are to solve an actual business problem and to test theories in the real world. Reginald Revans, the originator of action learning principles, emphasizes that the learner develops skills through responsible involvement in some real, complex, and stressful problem. The goals of action learning are to involve and challenge the trainee, and to move employees from passive observation to identification with the people and the vision of the organization. This method moves trainees from information receivers to problem solvers. Action learning incorporates more of the adult learning principles than any other method of training.

Question 74

Adaptive guidance

Answer 74

An instructional strategy to assist trainees in making effective learning decisions trainees should be provided with some structure and guidance so that they know what content to learn and the best way to learn it. They also need to know what they should be studying and practising to improve their learning and performance. This type of guidance is known as adaptive guidance, which is an instructional strategy to assist trainees in making effective learning decisions. Adaptive guidance has been found to have a positive effect on the way trainees study and practise, as well as their self-efficacy, knowledge, and performance. Thus, learner control is more effective when it is supplemented with adaptive guidance.

Question 75

Asynchronous

Answer 75

Training that is pre-recorded and available to employees at any time and from any location Technology-based training can be asynchronous or synchronous. When training is asynchronous, it is available to employees at any time and from any location. For example, an asynchronous program might simply involve the posting of text, information, or instructions on a website

Question 76

Behaviour modelling training (BMT)

Answer 76

A training method in which trainees observe a model performing a task and then attempt to imitate the observed behaviour BMT is one of the most widely used and researched training methods. It has been used to teach interpersonal skills such as supervision, negotiation, communication, and sales, as well as motor skills. It is the most popular method for teaching interpersonal and supervisory skills. In recent years it has been extended to other areas such as cross-cultural skills and technical skills. BMT is based on four general principles of learning: 1. observation (modelling) 2. rehearsal (practice) 3. reinforcement (reward) 4. transfer

Question 77

Case incident

Answer 77

A training method in which one problem, concept, or issue is presented for analysis Unlike the typical case study, a case incident is usually no more than one page in length and is designed to illustrate or probe one specific problem, concept, or issue. Most management textbooks include a case incident at the end of each chapter. The case incident has become one of the most accessible ways of adding an experiential or real-world component into a lecture. Case incidents are useful when the trainer wants to focus on one topic or concept. Because they are short, trainees can read them during a training session and valuable time will not be taken up by differences in trainees’ reading speeds. Another advantage of a case incident is that trainees are able to use their own experiences. If the material is written well, the problem presented in each incident will encourage the application of current knowledge, leading to increased confidence and trainee input and participation. The main disadvantage of case incidents is that some trainees are bothered by the lack of background material. Indeed, at times it is necessary for trainees to make assumptions, and trainers may be asked by some trainees to sketch in the background.

Question 78

Case study

Answer 78

A training method in which trainees discuss, analyze, and solve problems based on a real situation The objectives of a case study are to 1. introduce realism into trainees’ learning; 2. deal with a variety of problems, goals, facts, conditions, and conflicts that often occur in the real world 3. teach trainees how to make decisions 4. teach trainees to be creative and think independently. The case study method teaches trainees to think for themselves and develop analytical and problem-solving skills while the trainer functions as a catalyst for learning. Case studies develop analytical ability, sharpen problem-solving skills, encourage creativity, and improve the organization of thoughts and ideas. The case study method is often used in business schools to teach students how to analyze and solve realistic organizational problems. Several studies have found that using cases improves communication skills and problem solving, and enables students to better understand management situations. Because a case study is a description of a typical management situation, it is often difficult to know what to include and what to omit.

Question 79

Social cognitive theory

Answer 79

The central premise of social cognitive theory is social learning, which involves learning through interactions with others. Social learning can be either formal (e.g., mentoring programs) or informal (e.g., collaborative work). three key components: observation, self-efficacy, and self-regulation Observation - Learning by observing the actions of others and the consequences Self-efficacy - Beliefs that people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task Self-regulation - Managing one’s own behaviour through a series of internal processes

Question 80

Electronic performance support system (EPSS)

Answer 80

A computer-based system that provides information, advice, and learning experiences to improve performance An electronic performance support system (EPSS) is a computer-based system that provides access to integrated information, advice, and learning experiences. Thus, it is like a modern-day version of a performance or job aid that uses technology. An EPSS provides several types of support, including assisting, warning, advising, teaching, and evaluating. Employees can obtain information to help solve work-related problems. The goal of an EPSS is to provide whatever is necessary to aid performance and learning at the time it is needed. When the accounting firm KPMG needed to train all its employees on a new tax planning service, it chose EPSS over classroom training. The EPSS saved in delivery time (consultants did not need to spend three weeks in classrooms) and reduced the costs of updates. With an EPSS, information is accessed only when it is needed. Only the information that is needed is given; there is no information overload.

Question 81

Gamification

Answer 81

The use of game mechanics and elements from video games to engage and motivate employees in the workplace The use of games in the workplace has been receiving increasing attention as a way to improve employee engagement and motivation and has led to the development of gamification. Gamification is also being used for training and development to make learning more interactive, engaging, and fun. For example, Sun Life Financial used gamification to design a training program to encourage the employees of its clients to learn about workplace retirement and savings plans and to increase their financial literacy

Question 82

Generative learning

Answer 82

A self-initiated and learner-controlled form of collaborative learning in which individuals in a social network share ideas and information, and in the process solve problems and create new knowledge One of the benefits of Web 2.0 technologies is that they facilitate generative learning. This involves much more than the traditional approach to learning, in which trainees learn the training material provided to them in instructor-led training programs. With generative learning, individuals initiate and control what they learn, when they learn, and how they learn. Web 2.0 technologies make generative learning possible.

Question 83

Instructional methods

Answer 83

The techniques used to stimulate learning Instructional methods are usually used in a classroom or formal setting for the purpose of learning. Queen’s University’s clinical simulation centre is a good example of the use of simulations, which is an instructional training method discussed in this chapter. Although the instructional methods described in this chapter usually take place in a classroom, some instructional methods, such as games and simulations, can also take place outside of a classroom and can be incorporated into computer-based training programs. Instructional methods 1. Lecture. The trainer presents to trainees the content to be learned. 2. Discussion. Two-way communication between the trainer and the trainees as well as among trainees. 3. Case study. Trainees discuss, analyze, and solve problems based on a real situation. 4. Case incident. A problem, concept, or issue is presented for analysis. 5. Behaviour modelling training. Trainees observe a model performing a task and then attempt to imitate the observed behaviour. 6. Role play. Trainees practise new behaviours in a safe environment. 7. Simulations. The use of operating models of physical or social events designed to represent reality. 8. Games. Structured competition that allows employees to learn specific skills. 9. Action learning. Trainees study and solve real-world problems and accept responsibility for the solution.

Question 84

Job instruction method

Answer 84

One of the on-the-job training mehods A formalized, structured, and systematic approach that consists of four steps: preparation, instruction, performance, and follow-up. With job instruction training, the trainer demonstrates task performance on the job and then provides the trainee with opportunities to practise while the trainer provides feedback and reinforcement. The trainer then monitors the trainees’ performance on the job. Thus, like behaviour modelling training, job instruction training involves observation, rehearsal, reinforcement, and transfer.

Question 85

Performance aid

Answer 85

One of the on-the-job training mehods A device at the job site that helps an employee perform his/her job A performance aid, also known as a job aid, is a device at the job site that helps an employee perform his/her job. Performance aids can be signs or prompts (“Have you turned off the computer?”); troubleshooting aids (“If the red light goes on, the machine needs oil”); instructions in sequence (“To empty the machine, follow the next five steps”); a special tool or gauge (a long stick to measure how much gas is in an inaccessible tank); flash cards to help counsel clients; a picture (of a perfectly set table); or posters and checklists. The reasoning behind the use of performance aids is that requiring the memorization of sequences and tasks can take too much training time, especially if the task is not repeated daily. They are also useful when performance is difficult, is executed infrequently, can be done slowly, and when the consequences of poor performance are serious.

Question 86

Psychological fidelity

Answer 86

The similarity of the psychological conditions of the simulation to the actual work environment Psychological fidelity has to do with the similarity of the psychological conditions of the simulation to the actual work environment. Simulations should be designed so that the experience is as similar as possible to what trainees experience on the job. In other words, the simulation should include on-the-job psychological conditions such as time pressures, problems, conflicts, and so on. The simulations described in the chapter-opening vignette in which medical students practise removing a gall bladder and practise on sophisticated mannequins are good examples of physical and psychological fidelity.

Question 87

Physical fidelity

Answer 87

The similarity of the physical aspects of a simulation (e.g., equipment, tasks, and surroundings) to the actual job Physical fidelity has to do with the similarity of the physical aspects of a simulation (e.g., equipment, tasks, and surroundings) to the actual job. Simulators should be designed to physically replicate and resemble the work environment. That is, the simulation should have the appearance of the actual work site. For example, a flight simulator should look like the cockpit of an actual airplane with respect to the various controls, lights, and instruments.

Question 88

Reverse roleplay

Answer 88

Although in many cases a trainee will play his/her own role in a role play, it is also possible for the trainee to play another role, which is called a reverse role play. In a reverse role play, trainees are required to put themselves in another person’s position. By playing the role of another person, trainees can develop empathy for others and learn what it feels like to be in a particular role. For example, when a customer service representative is given instructions to play the part of a disgruntled customer with a major problem, he or she can experience the frustrations of responses like “That’s not my department” and “Just fill in that form over there, no, not that one.” As a result, the trainee develops an awareness of the other person’s feelings and attitudes, which can lead to a change in trainee attitudes and behaviour.

Question 89

Stretch assignment

Answer 89

Job assignments that aim to “stretch” employees by having them work on challenging tasks and projects that involve learning new knowledge and skills An alternative is to provide employees with developmental job experiences or what is generally known as stretch assignments. Stretch assignments are job assignments that aim to “stretch” employees by having them work on challenging tasks and projects that involve learning new knowledge and skills. Typically they require employees to take on a variety of new tasks that are larger in scope than their current job and involve more responsibility. Many organizations offer their employees stretch assignments as a retention strategy as well as for career development and advancement.

Question 90

Events of instruction

Answer 90

External events that are designed to help learning occur Gagné’s nine events of instruction 1. Gain attention. Reflects adult learners’ need to know why they are learning something and their training motivation. 2. Describe the objectives. This follows from the purpose of training objectives for trainees. It also reflects adult learners’ need to know how the learning relates to their job, and the importance of goals as indicated in goal-setting theory. 3. Stimulate recall of prior knowledge. Reflects adult learners’ existing knowledge and experience and how that can be linked to the training material. Providing a framework for learning is similar to an advance organizer. 4. Present the material to be learned. Reflects task sequencing and incorporating adult learners’ job-relevant experiences into the training content. 5. Provide guidance for learning. Reflects the use of metacognitive strategies, attentional advice, and advance organizers. 6. Elicit performance practice. Reflects the importance of active practice and experiential training methods (e.g., role plays, games, simulations). 7. Provide informative feedback. Reflects the importance of feedback and knowledge of results during practice. 8. Assess performance. Reflects the importance of linking training objectives to trainee learning and ensuring that the objectives are being met as well as the stages of learning. 9. Enhance retention and transfer. Reflects generalization from conditioning theory and self-regulation and self-efficacy from social cognitive theory.

Question 91

Lesson

Answer 91

A cohesive unit of instruction with a specific learning objective A lesson plan should be developed for each lesson in a program. The detailed lesson plan for each lesson should indicate the activities that will occur during the lesson as well as what the trainer and trainees will be doing and when they will be doing it.

Question 92

Lesson plan

Answer 92

The blueprint that outlines the sequence of activities that will take place in the training program As such, it is a guide for the trainer that provides a step-by-step breakdown for conducting a training program. A lesson plan should be developed for each lesson in a program. A lesson is a cohesive unit of instruction with a specific learning objective. A good lesson plan should be developed in advance of a training program and be detailed enough that any trainer could use it to guide him/herself through the program. Most of what is required to deliver a training program is indicated in the lesson plan. Although there is no one best format for lesson plans, a good rule of thumb is to focus on what the trainee will be doing. A lesson plan should reflect the interaction of content, sequence, trainer, trainee, and the norms of the organization.

Question 93

Seductive details

Answer 93

Entertaining and interesting information that is irrelevant or only tangentially related to the training material and not necessary for achieving the training objective When a trainer is engaging, trainees are more likely to be motivated to learn, and they are attentive and absorbed in the learning process. One way a trainer can do this is by using seductive details while delivering the training program. Although seductive details might be interesting and entertaining for trainees, it might impair their learning and retention, something known as the seductive details effect.

Question 94

Trainability test

Answer 94

A test that measures an individual’s ability to learn and perform training tasks One way to know whether an employee is ready to attend a training program is to have him/her take a trainability test. Trainability tests have been shown to be effective in predicting training success and job performance in many jobs, such as carpentry, welding, dentistry, and forklift operating. Although they have most often been used for psychomotor skills, they are just as applicable for other types of skills and knowledge tests. Training pre-tests can also be used to determine what kind of remedial training an individual might require to prepare them for a training program or to tailor a training program to one’s needs. Thus, managers can maximize trainee learning by assessing employees’ readiness to learn and trainability prior to training.

Question 95

Training administration

Answer 95

The coordination of all the people and materials involved in the training program Once the lesson plan has been completed, a number of activities must be undertaken to manage and administer a training program. Training administration involves the coordination of all the people and materials involved in a training program. The maintenance of trainee records, training histories, customized learning opportunities, schedules, and course and material inventories is a routine, but necessary, activity.

Question 96

Far transfer

Answer 96

One of the types of transfer training The extent to which trainees can apply what was learned in training to novel or different situations from those in which they were trained

Question 97

Generalization

Answer 97

The use or application of learned material to the job There are two conditions of transfer of training. Generalization refers to the use or application of learned material to the job, and maintenance refers to the use or application of learned material on the job over a period of time. While generalization involves the application of knowledge and skills learned in training to different settings, people, and situations, maintenance reflects the fact that some trainees will increase their use of trained skills over time while other trainees will decrease their use of trained skills over time.2 In general, transfer of training occurs when knowledge and skills learned in training are generalized to the job and maintained over a period of time on the job.

Question 98

Goal-setting intervention

Answer 98

An intervention that instructs trainees about the goal-setting process and how to set specific goals for using trained skills on the job This usually involves a discussion of why goal-setting is important and a definition of goals; a description of the goal-setting process; characteristics of effective goals (specific and challenging); an explanation for the effectiveness of goals; examples of how goal-setting has been used in organizations; and a discussion of how goal-setting can be effective in one’s own organization Goal-setting interventions have been shown to improve learning and the extent to which trainees apply their newly learned skills on the job. In addition, one study found that goal-setting was particularly effective for enhancing transfer for trainees who work in a supportive work environment.

Question 99

Horizontal transfer

Answer 99

One of the types of transfer of training The transfer of knowledge and skills across different settings or contexts at the same level. A final distinction is whether transfer is horizontal or vertical. Horizontal transfer involves the transfer of knowledge and skills across different settings or contexts at the same level. This is the focus of this chapter and is consistent with how we have defined “transfer of training.” That is, we are concerned about the extent to which trainees transfer what they learn in training from the training environment to the work environment. This is an important distinction because transfer to the job (i.e., horizontal transfer) might not lead to changes in organization outcomes (i.e., vertical transfer). Furthermore, there are differences in how to improve each type of transfer. The focus of this chapter is on horizontal transfer, which is a necessary condition for vertical transfer.

Question 100

Near transfer

Answer 100

One of the types of training of transfer The extent to which trainees can apply what was learned in training to situations that are very similar to those in which they were trained. Transfer of training can also be defined in terms of the type of situations in which trainees apply what was learned in training on the job. dentical elements are especially important for near transfer, and they have been shown to increase trainees’ retention of motor and verbal behaviours.

Question 101

Performance contract

Answer 101

An agreement outlining how the newly learned skills will be applied to the job Trainers can also have trainees prepare a performance contract. A performance contract is a statement that is drafted by the trainee and the trainer jointly near the end of a training program. It outlines which of the newly acquired skills are beneficial and how they will be applied to the job. A copy can then be given to the trainer, a peer, or the supervisor, who will monitor progress toward these goals. Trainees submit progress reports to human resources and their supervisor. A variation on the timing (i.e., signing the contract jointly before a training program) alerts the trainee to the critical elements of the program and commits the supervisor to monitoring progress.

Question 102

Performance contract

Answer 102

An agreement outlining how the newly learned skills will be applied to the job Trainers can also have trainees prepare a performance contract. A performance contract is a statement that is drafted by the trainee and the trainer jointly near the end of a training program. It outlines which of the newly acquired skills are beneficial and how they will be applied to the job. A copy can then be given to the trainer, a peer, or the supervisor, who will monitor progress toward these goals. Trainees submit progress reports to human resources and their supervisor. A variation on the timing (i.e., signing the contract jointly before a training program) alerts the trainee to the critical elements of the program and commits the supervisor to monitoring progress.

Question 103

Relapse prevention (RP)

Answer 103

An intervention that instructs trainees to anticipate transfer obstacles and high-risk situations in the work environment and to develop coping skills and strategies to overcome them Relapse prevention sensitizes trainees to the possibilities of a relapse and “immunizes” them against obstacles in the environment that might cause one. RP sensitizes trainees to barriers in the workplace that might inhibit or prevent successful transfer of training. Relapse prevention interventions make trainees aware that relapses can occur and that temporary slips are normal. Trainees are asked to identify obstacles and barriers to transfer and high-risk situations in which a relapse is likely to occur. Some high-risk situations that might lead to a relapse are time pressure and deadlines; work overload; lack of necessary tools, equipment, and resources; and the lack of opportunities to apply trained skills on the job

Question 104

Stimulus variable

Answer 104

Stimulus variability A variety of training stimuli and experiences, such as multiple examples of a concept and practice experiences in a variety of situations Incorporating stimulus variability into a training program involves providing trainees with a variety of training stimuli and experiences, such as multiple examples of a concept or practice experience in a variety of situations. The idea is that trainees’ understanding of training material can be strengthened by providing several examples of a concept because they will see how the concept can be applied in a variety of situations. This enables greater generalization of the new skills and prevents the potential problem of learning being limited to a narrow range of situations. Stimulus variability can be incorporated into a training program by using different models that vary in their characteristics (e.g., gender or age), by modelling different situations (e.g., different types of negotiation scenarios for a training program on negotiation skills), and by using models with different levels of competence in performing the training task (successful and unsuccessful). Trainers can also increase stimulus variability by describing a variety of examples and experiences related to the training content, and by asking trainees to discuss their own work experiences in relation to the training material. Using several examples has been found to be more effective than simply repeating the same example.

Question 105

Transfer of training

Answer 105

The generalization of knowledge and skills learned in training on the job and the maintenance of acquired knowledge and skills over time Typres of transfer of training * Positive transfer. Trainees apply new knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired in training on the job. * Zero transfer. Trainees do not use new knowledge, skills, and attitudes acquired in training on the job. * Negative transfer. Training has had a negative effect and trainees are performing worse as a result of a training program. * Near transfer. The extent to which trainees can apply what was learned in training to situations that are very similar to those in which they were trained. * Far transfer. The extent to which trainees can apply what was learned in training to novel or different situations from those in which they were trained. * Horizontal transfer. The transfer of knowledge and skills across different settings or contexts at the same level. * Vertical transfer. Transfer from the individual or trainee level to the organizational level, or the extent to which changes in trainee behaviour or performance transfer to organizational-level outcomes.

Question 106

Transfer system

Answer 106

All factors in the person, training, and organization that influence transfer of learning to job performance In this chapter, we have described strategies and interventions that can facilitate and improve the transfer of training. These strategies can occur throughout the training process and involve the training program itself as well as trainees, trainers, management, and the organization. One way of thinking about all the factors that can influence and facilitate the transfer of training is in terms of a transfer system. According to Elwood Holton and colleagues, the transfer system is all factors in the person, training, and organization that influence transfer of learning to job performance. The 16 factors that make up the transfer system are important predictors of transfer of training that we have already discussed in the chapter, such as trainee ability, motivation, and the work environment. Learning and the transfer system factors influence transfer performance, which in turn influences organizational performance.

Question 107

Vertical transfer

Answer 107

One of the types of training of transfer Transfer from the individual or trainee level to the organizational level, or the extent to which changes in trainee behaviour or performance transfer to organizational-level outcomes. Vertical transfer refers to transfer from the individual or trainee level upward to the organizational level. In other words, it is concerned with the extent to which changes in trainee behaviour and performance transfer to organizational-level outcomes. For example, will a change in trainees’ customer service behaviour and performance result in an improvement in the organization’s service and customer satisfaction? Vertical transfer represents the link between employee behaviour and organization results.

Question 108

Affective reaction

Answer 108

Reaction measures that assess trainees’ likes and dislikes of a training program Affective reaction measures appear to bear little relationship to other important training outcomes such as learning and behaviour. By contrast, utility reaction measures are generally preferable, since they demonstrate some relationship to these higher-level outcomes.19 However, the data gathered in a 2008 study nuance the previously thought advantage of utility measures over affective ones. Whereas this study confirms that affective reactions bear little relationship to higher-level outcomes, it reports significant correlations between affective reactions and outcomes for courses that use a high level of technology, such as Internet courses: People who dislike an Internet course are less likely to derive benefits from it than those who like it. This suggests the importance for Internet-delivered courses to include design elements that can maintain the trainee’s attention. They need to be interesting and engaging to the learner. Trainees who dislike or are bored by a training course (low affective reactions) can, and often do, simply shut off their computers!

Question 109

Benefit–cost ratio (BCR)

Answer 109

The benefit divided by the cost of the training program i.e MW’s TSCP Training Program: $20, 400/$17,500 = 1.17

Question 110

Causal evaluation

Answer 110

Causal evaluations are used to determine whether the training caused the post-training learning and/or behaviours. Causal evaluations require more complex data gathering and statistical procedures. The development of a causal training evaluation requires five steps. 1. Select the basic designs (post only, pre-post, time series) as a function of the constraints and of the informational needs of the organization. 2. Identify a group of “identical” employees for whom the need for the specific training is pertinent. 3. Randomly divide these employees into two groups. One group is to attend training, the other, called the control group, is not. 4. Measure both groups on the same outcome variables at the same time. 5. Statistically compare the outcomes achieved by both groups.

Question 111

COMA

Answer 111

A training evaluation model designed for formative evaluation that involves the measurement of cognitive, organizational, motivational, and attitudinal variables The COMA model is inspired by the Kirkpatrick model. It is intended principally for conducting formative evaluation. COMA enhances the usefulness of training evaluation questionnaires by identifying and measuring those variables that research has shown to be important for the transfer of training.16 Instead of relying exclusively on reaction and declarative learning measures, COMA suggests the measurement of variables that fall into four categories: cognitive, organizational environment, motivational, and attitudinal variables (spelling the acronym COMA). These are measured by questionnaires that are administered to trainees immediately after the training session (and sometimes before).

Question 112

Cost–benefit evaluation

Answer 112

A comparison of the cost of training in monetary terms to the benefits of training in non-monetary terms Non-monetary benefits are similar to what was described as results or Level 4 evaluation criteria. These benefits involve organization outcomes such as the rate of turnover, absenteeism, customer satisfaction, and so on. It is worth noting that such benefits might have a financial effect on the performance of an organization even though they might not be described in monetary terms.

Question 113

Cost-effectiveness evaluation

Answer 113

A comparison of the monetary cost of training to the benefit of training in monetary terms

Question 114

Decision-Based Evaluation (DBE)

Answer 114

A training evaluation model that specifies the target, focus, and methods of evaluation Decision-Based Evaluation (DBE) is a model developed by Kurt Kraiger. It requires evaluators to select their evaluation techniques and variables as a function of the uses to which the results of the evaluation will be put. That is, evaluation choices depend on the decisions needed. As with the COMA model, DBE specifies the categories of variables to be measured, but DBE goes further. It invites evaluators to custom fit their evaluations to the requirements of the situation. Hence, assessors need to identify the target of the evaluation (What do we want to find out from the evaluation?), identify its focus (What are the variables we will measure?), and suggest the methods that may be appropriate for conducting the evaluation. The model specifies three potential “targets” for the evaluation: (1) trainee change; (2) organizational payoff; and (3) program improvement.

Question 115

Declarative learning

Answer 115

Acquiring facts and information; is by far the most frequently assessed learning measure Declarative learning is by far the most frequently assessed learning measure. It refers to the acquisition of facts and information. Students familiar with college or university exams know about tests of declarative learning. The most popular (and easiest to construct) declarative learning tests are formatted as multiple choice or true–false questions.

Question 116

Descriptive evaluation

Answer 116

Provide information that describes the trainee once he/she has completed a training program Descriptive evaluations provide information describing trainees once they have completed the program. Have the trainees learned the skill? Are they confident about and motivated to use the skill? Are they using the new skill on the job? Most evaluation designs have some descriptive components. Causal evaluations are used to determine whether the training caused the post-training learning and/or behaviours. Causal evaluations require more complex data gathering and statistical procedures

Question 117

Developmental cost

Answer 117

One of the costing training programs Costs that are incurred in the development of a training program Developmental costs are incurred in the development of a training program. This would include the cost of doing a needs analysis, the cost of developing instructional media such as video, the design of training materials, and the cost of evaluating a training program.

Question 118

Direct cost

Answer 118

One of the costing training programs Costs that are linked directly to a particular training program Direct costs are costs that are linked directly to a particular training program. This includes the trainers’ salary and benefits, equipment rental, course materials, instructional aids, food and refreshments, and the cost of travel to and from the training site. These costs are so directly linked to a particular training program that they would not be incurred if the training program were cancelled.

Question 119

Formative evaluation

Answer 119

Provide data about various aspects of a training program Formative evaluations are designed to help evaluators assess the value of the training materials and processes with the key goal of identifying improvements to the instructional experience (the clarity, complexity, and relevance of the training contents, how they are presented, and the training context). Hence, formative evaluation provides data that are of special interest to training designers and instructors.

Question 120

Hard data

Answer 120

Results that are assessed objectively Hard data are objective measures that fall in one of four categories: • quantity (the number of items sold or produced) • quality (scrap rates and product returns) • time (downtime or time to complete assignments) • costs (sales expenses, benchmarks) Hard data are of particular and direct relevance to upper management partly because of their objectivity, but mainly because they assess the bottom line.

Question 121

Indirect cost

Answer 121

One of the costing training programs Costs that support training activities and are not directly linked to a particular training program Indirect costs are costs that are not part of a particular training program per se but are expenses required to support training activities. Indirect costs include clerical and administrative support, trainer preparation and planning, training materials that have already been sent to trainees, and the cost of marketing training programs. These costs would still be incurred even if a training program were cancelled. In other words, unlike the direct costs, these costs cannot be recovered.

Question 122

Kirkpatrick’s Model

Answer 122

Kirkpatrick’s hierarchical model of training evaluation is the oldest, best known, and most frequently used training evaluation model. For example, the Conference Board of Canada data summarized in Figure 10.2 is organized using his model. It identifies four fundamental measures, called levels, to assess training. According to this model, a training program is “effective” when L1.Trainees report positive reactions to a training program (Level 1 = reactions). L2.Trainees learn the training material (Level 2 = learning). L3.Trainees apply on the job what they learn in training (Level 3 = behaviours). L4.Training has a positive effect on organizational outcomes (Level 4 = impact or results).

Question 123

Net benefit

Answer 123

The estimated value of the benefit minus the cost of the training program Once we know the cost of a training program as well as the benefit in monetary terms, it is possible to determine the net benefit of the program. The net benefit of a training program refers to the benefit minus the cost of the training program. Thus, to conduct a net benefit analysis one simply subtracts the cost of a training program from its financial benefit. The net benefit of MW’s TSCP is therefore $2,900 ($20,400 − $17,500). A related calculation is the benefit–cost ratio (BCR), which is derived by dividing the benefit by the cost. Thus, the BCR for MW’s TSCP is 1.17 ($20,400/$17,500).

Question 124

Overhead cost

Answer 124

One of the costing training programs Costs incurred by the training department but not associated with any particular training program Overhead costs are incurred by the training department but not associated with any particular training program. Such costs are required for the general operation of the training function, such as the cost of maintaining training facilities (e.g., heat and lighting) and equipment and the salaries of clerical and administrative support staff. A portion of these costs must be allocated to each training program.

Question 125

Procedural learning

Answer 125

Organizing facts and information into a smooth behavioural sequence Procedural learning involves the organization of facts and information into a smooth behavioural sequence. Many techniques are available to measure it, but all are more complex to develop and use than declarative learning measures. As a result, rare are the organizations that measure procedural learning in their evaluations of training.

Question 126

Return on expectations

Answer 126

The measurement of a training program’s ability to meet managerial expectations In some cases, it is difficult or impossible to adequately assess the impact of training directly either with hard or soft data. An alternative is to calculate return on expectations. Those who are involved in training decide exactly what they expect from the training. These expectations form the goals for training, and sometime later the course managers decide whether the performance results are in line with their expectations.

Question 127

Return on investment (ROI)

Answer 127

A comparison of the cost of a training program to its benefits by dividing the net benefit by the cost of the training program ROI = (Benefits - Cost of the Program)/Cost of the Program Return on investment (ROI) involves comparing the cost of a training program to its benefits by dividing the net benefit by the cost of the training program. For example, Cisco Systems calculates the ROI of e-learning by having employees complete a Web-based survey shortly after they have attended a training program. Employees are asked to select a percentage range that indicates the time savings or quality improvement in their performance since taking the course. The results are used to calculate the ROI of e-learning, which has been found to be 900 percent per course. In other words, every dollar the company spends on training results in a gain of $9 in productivity.

Question 128

Soft data

Answer 128

Results that are assessed through perceptions and judgments Soft data are measures of beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions and usually involve judgments, observations, or perceptions of an outcome. These include measures of self-efficacy, motivation, post-training support, and the elements covered by the LTSI questionnaire. Self-reports are frequently measured when it is difficult to measure some skills, such as decision making. Unlike hard data, soft data are not direct indicators of organizational outcomes (providing dollar values). Rather, soft data are important because the feelings, beliefs, and attitudes they measure are linked to concrete results. For example, communication skills are not bottom-line measures, but they may ultimately affect the organization’s bottom line. Self-efficacy is another type of soft data that might indirectly affect the bottom line because of its influence on the display of communication skills.

Question 129

Summative evaluation

Answer 129

Provide data about the worthiness or effectiveness of a training program Summative evaluations are designed to provide data about a training program’s worthiness or effectiveness: Has the training program resulted in payoffs for the organization? Cost–benefit analyses (see Chapter 11) are usually summative. Economic indices are often an integral and important part of these types of evaluations, and for this reason summative evaluations are of greatest interest to senior management. Ironically, these are rarely conducted by training departments!

Question 130

Training evaluation

Answer 130

A process to assess the value—the worthiness—of training programs to employees and to organizations Training evaluation is a process designed to assess the value—the worthiness—of training programs to employees and to organizations. Using a variety of techniques, objective and subjective information is gathered before, during, and/or after training to establish that worthiness. Trainees, supervisors, or others familiar with the trainees and the job are important information sources, as are objective performance records. Training evaluation is not a single procedure. Rather, it is a continuum of techniques, methods, and measures. At one end of the continuum are simple evaluations that mainly focus on the reactions of the trainees to the program. Are the trainees satisfied with the training sessions? Do they think they are helpful? Easily conducted, these evaluations entail few if any costs. However, the information they provide is limited, leading at times to misleading conclusions about the worthiness of a training program. At the other end of the training evaluation continuum lie procedures that are more elaborate. They rely on more complete and more solid information-extensive questionnaires, interviews, and objective data. They use detailed information of a richer quality about the value of a training program. Hence, their conclusions can be stated with greater confidence and precision. They answer key questions such as: Have the trainees learned the skills? Are they motivated to apply them? Are they confident they can? Will the work environment support or discourage the display of the new skill on the job?

Question 131

Utility analysis

Answer 131

A method to forecast the financial benefits that result from human resource programs such as training and development Utility analysis is a method used to forecast the financial benefits that result from human resource programs such as training and development. Utility analysis involves procedures in which the effectiveness of a training program is translated into dollars and cents

Question 132

Utility reactions

Answer 132

Reaction measures that assess the perceived usefulness of a training program “How much of the course content can be applied in your job?” Utility reaction measures are generally preferable, since they demonstrate some relationship to these higher-level outcomes.

Question 133

Nine basic needs analysis

Answer 133

``` observation questionnaires key consultation print media interviews group discussion tests records and reports work samples ```

Question 134

KSA

Answer 134

Knowledge, skills, and abilities

Question 135

Costing Training Programs

Answer 135

Costing is the process used to identify all the expenditures used in training. This is an important procedure in both the design and evaluation of a training program. Direct costs - Costs that are linked directly to a particular training program Indirect costs - Costs that support training activities and are not directly linked to a particular training program Developmental costs - Costs that are incurred in the development of a training program Overhead costs - Costs incurred by the training department but not associated with any particular training program Trainee compensation - The cost of the salaries and benefits paid to trainees while they are attending a training program

Question 136

On-the-job training

Answer 136

A training method in which a trainee receives instruction and training at his or her workstation from a supervisor or an experienced co-worker Types of on-the-job training 1. Job instruction training. A formalized, structured, and systematic approach that consists of four steps: preparation, instruction, performance, and follow-up. 2. Performance aid. A device at the job site that helps an employee perform his/her job. 3. Job rotation. Trainees are exposed to many functions and areas within an organization. 4. Apprenticeship. Training for skilled trades workers that combines on-the-job training with classroom instruction. 5. Coaching. A more experienced and knowledgeable person is formally called upon to help another person develop insights and techniques pertinent to the accomplishment of their job and improvement of their job performance. 6. Mentoring. A senior member of an organization takes a personal interest in the career of a junior employee.

Question 137

Cost-effectiveness evaluation vs. cost–benefit evaluation

Answer 137

A cost-effectiveness evaluation involves comparing the monetary cost of training to the benefit of training in monetary terms. Sometimes, it is not possible to determine the monetary value of training benefits or to express them in financial terms. Further, in some cases there might be important benefits of a training program that are not monetary benefits. This kind of evaluation is called a cost–benefit evaluation. A cost–benefit evaluation compares the cost of training in monetary terms to the benefits of training in non-monetary terms

Question 138

Methods to calculate the financial benefits of Traning

Answer 138

Net Benefit: The benefit minus the cost of the training program: Benefit – Cost Benefit–cost ratio (BCR): The benefit divided by the cost: Benefit/Cost Return on investment (ROI): The net benefit divided by the cost of training: ((Benefits - Traning cost)/Training cost) x 100 = percentage

Question 139

Traditional training

Answer 139

Training that does not involve using technology to deliver training traditional training is training that does not involve the use of technology to deliver training, such as classroom training with a live instructor (regardless of the instructor’s or learners’ use of technology during the class); non-computerized self-study, such as textbooks or workbooks; non-computerized games; seminars; lectures; or outdoor programs.

Question 140

Generative learning

Answer 140

A self-initiated and learner-controlled form of collaborative learning in which individuals in a social network share ideas and information, and in the process solve problems and create new knowledge

Question 141

ACT theory stands for?

Answer 141

Adaptive character of thought