Quizes Flashcards
Training is
A formal undertaking
Designed to increase workers’ knowledge, skill, and abilities in their current job
The textbook defines training as a formal and planned effort to help workers acquire knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to improve their performance in their current job. By contrast, development emphasizes developing KSAs for future job responsibilities. The boundary between training and development are permeable. For example, it is possible for a worker to both improve their present performance and learn things that qualify them for a future job in the same training session.
Performance Management:
Entails establishing performance goals.
Seeks to improve performance through interventions.
Can include punishing poor performance.
The textbook defines performance management as the process of establishing goals and designing interventions and programs to motivate and develop employees to improve their performance and, ultimately, organizational performance. While this course focuses on training interventions to remedy deficits in workers’ knowledge, skills, and abilities, poor performance that is not deficit-related (or that is the result of egregious misconduct) is still likely to be punished, through discipline or termination. This threat of termination can also motivate workers to engage in and apply training. This dynamic highlights that employment is a relationship of power and employers use their power to achieve their goals (usually related to maximize profitability).
What are the major steps of the instructional systems design (ISD) model?
Evaluation, training design and delivery, and needs analysis.
What tasks are performed during a needs analysis?
Organizational analysis.
Task analysis
Person analysis.
The ISD model puts the creation of training objectives before the development of training content and methods. Why do you think this is the case?
The logic of the ISD model in training is intended to meet certain organizational goals that are identified in the needs analysis. Training objectives translate these needs into specific objectives that training must achieve in order for it to be successful. The content of the training and the methods by which it is delivered should be consistent with these objectives, so the objectives are developed first.
Sometimes, organizations will buy off-the-shelf training products. What are the risks associated with this choice, given the logic of the ISD model?
The main risk of buying off-the-shelf training is that the objectives, content, and method are often pre-determined by the training provider. The resulting training may not meet the organizational need that has prompted the training. For example, an organization may be statutorily required to provide its cleaning staff with training about how to handle chemicals that are used in the workplace. The organizational needs may be to (1) comply with the law, and (2) ensure workers are not injured by the chemicals they are required to use.
Purchasing off-the-shelf training on handling hazardous chemicals may provide these workers with general principles for handling chemicals safely. But it may not address the specific chemicals used in the workplace or the circumstances in which the chemicals are actually used. This off-the-shelf training may meet the statutory requirement but may not provide adequate protection to workers.
Why might organizations purchase off-the-shelf training instead of developing their own?
Generally, the decision to purchase off-the-shelf training is a cost-benefit decision. In a capitalist economy, employers typically seek to maximize profitability. One way to do that is by minimizing labour costs. Off-the-shelf training may be significantly cheaper than developing in-house training. For example, the training provider may have access to knowledge, skills, or content that the employer does not. It may be necessary for an employer to trade off the cost savings of off-the-shelf training against any potential reduction in effectiveness caused by the training not being a perfect fit for the organization.
Why does the textbook suggest that training may positively impact recruitment?
The textbook indicates that workers may value skills development. This may be particularly true of younger employees who are looking to move up in their organization or in another workplace. This statement highlights that employment relationships are always temporary ones. One of the resulting training dynamics is that employers may be reluctant to provide training if they fear their newly trained workers will be poached by another employer (who will reap the benefit from the training).
What benefits do workers receive from training?
The textbook asserts that workers receive both intrinsic and extrinsic benefits from training. Extrinsic benefits include higher earnings and greater marketability. Intrinsic benefits include greater confidence, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, and a feeling of usefulness and belonging to an organization.
It is interesting to note that the authors ignore that workers may also benefit from the break in their work routine and the opportunity to interact with others. Ignoring the idea that workers might benefit (emotionally and physically) from simply not doing their job for awhile highlights that the textbook looks at training almost exclusively through the lens of employer interests.
The textbook suggests that a labour shortage can be the result of a skills mismatch. Can you think of other reasons for a labour shortage?
Labour shortages can reflect a skills shortage. But they can also reflect qualified workers not being willing to make themselves available for the wages and working conditions that employers are offering. In these circumstances, workers who have some other way to pay their bills (e.g., employment insurance) may choose to opt out of the labour force. Given this, it is important to see the training prescription for a labour shortage (often combined with a demand for governments to fund such training) as part of employers’ efforts to minimize labour costs. This prescription makes available (at taxpayers’ expense) more adequately qualified workers who are available to take on jobs at the wages and working conditions offered.
True or False
Unitarists believe that workers refusing to apply training reflects a legitimate conflict of interest.
False.
Unitarism does not acknowledge that workers and employers have interests that sometimes conflict. Unitarism is more likely to explain workers refusing to apply training as deviant behaviour, worker irrationality, and/or poor communications.
How might a pluralist explain a worker refusing to share their knowledge of their job with the employer?
Workers sees their knowledge as a resource that makes them valuable to the employer.
Withholding knowledge of how work is done allows workers to control the pace and/or process of work.
Hoarding work-related knowledge is a bulwark against potential layoffs.
In a pluralist view (where workers and employers have interests that sometimes diverge), workers may decline to sharing their knowledge of how a job is done because they see their knowledge as an asset that they can use to shape their working conditions and reduce the likelihood of managers sacking them.
True or False
Historical disparities do not need to be considered in the development of training?
False.
Historical disparities between groups of people are often based upon one or more identity factors. Such disparities can manifest themselves in differences that affect the ability or willingness of individuals from these groups to participate in training. For example, women are often expected to be the primary caregivers for their children in addition to working. This can limit their ability or willingness to participate in training held outside of their normal work hours.
Will a worker whose first language is not English require translated materials to complete a training module on gender-based analysis?
It depends.
Whether a worker requires translated materials will depend upon the workers’ fluency in English. While GBA+ analysis can be helpful in leading us to ask questions about how intersectionality can affect training, it is important to be mindful that identity characteristics do not necessarily tell us much about the experiences or capabilities of individuals in the identity group. We can only know what (if any) alterations we may need to make to training delivery methods by asking those who will be affected by them.
What are examples of informal learning?
Incidental conversations.
Self-directed searching on the Internet.
Group problem solving
Informal learning is training that occurs primarily spontaneously and outside of formal designed activities. Conversations with coworkers, Internet searches, and group problem solving are examples. Seminars and structured on-the-job training programs are examples of formal learning because they involve planned and structured activities.
In Gagne’s framework of learning outcomes, what are examples of declarative knowledge?
Declarative knowledge includes facts, knowledge, principles, and packages of information. In this typology, preferences and internal states are categorized as attitudes, the execution of physical movements is categorized as motor skills, and procedures are categorized as intellectual skills.
In Krager’s framework of learning outcomes, what is the term for the fast and fluid performance of a task?
Compilation refers to the fast and fluid performance of a task as a result of proceduralization and composition. Automaticity is the ability to perform a task without conscious monitoring.
What is the key implication of resource allocation theory for training?
Resource allocation theory asserts that individuals have limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task. The amount of resources individuals can allocate to a new task varies across the three stages of learning. Given this, training must take into account what demands and expectations are realistic to place on learners at each stage of learning.
In adaptive character of thought (ACT) theory, what do learners accomplish during the first stage of learning?
The first stage of learning (declarative knowledge) sees learners learn facts, knowledge, and information.
In ACT theory, what occurs during knowledge compilation?
Learners acquire the ability to translate declarative knowledge into proficient action. This involves integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the performance of the task. This eventually leads to proceduralization—when the learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic.
Thinking about Kolb’s learning styles, if you have a group of learners who all prefer to learn using abstract conceptualization and reflective observation, which learning mode should you build into the training course?
Kolb notes the importance of a learning cycle in which learners use all four modes of learning in a sequence that begins with a concrete experience, followed by reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and then experimentation.
In conditioning theory, how do negative reinforcement and punishment differ from each other?
Negative reinforcement entails the removal of stimulus when desired behaviour is demonstrated. For example, workers who are competently performing a new task may no longer have their supervisor watching their work closely. This increases the likelihood of the workers exhibiting the desired behaviour. Punishment is the application of a sanction in order to deter undesired behaviour. For example, workers who goof off may find themselves being subject to close monitoring by their boss.
What are the three steps in the condition process, and how are they inter-related?
The three steps in the condition process are shaping, chaining, and generalizing. Shaping entails reinforcing each step in the process until it is mastered. The reinforcement is then withdrawn until the next step in the process is mastered. Chaining occurs once each step is mastered. Reinforcement is then applied only for the successful completion of all steps in a process. Finally, generalization addresses workers applying the process in different circumstances from which they learned them. This often entails giving workers the opportunity to apply what they have learned in different contexts.
What is the central premise of social cognitive theory?
Social cognitive theory asserts that we learn through interactions with others. This includes observing the behaviour of others, making choices about different courses of action to pursue (based upon how things went for those whom we observed), and managing our own behaviour in the process of learning. This theory suggests that there is more to learning than simply responding to a series of rewards and punishments.
Under what conditions are training goals motivational?
Goals tend to be motivational when they are specific, challenging, accompanied by feedback, and are goals to which the learner is committed.
Do you have an internal or external locus of control? How do you know this?
If you have an internal locus of control, you believe that the opportunity to control your behaviour resides within yourself. If you have an external locus of control, you believe that external forces control your behaviour. It is possible (and likely) that you will have different loci of control depending upon the circumstances.
What, according to Sandlin, are critical educators primarily interested in when studying andragogy?
Sandlin asserts critical educators are interested in power relations and societal inequalities and have a concern for forms of education which are liberating, rather than merely adjusting. In this way, critical educators seek to understand education as having both technical and political dimensions.
What, according to Sandlin, is the central feminist critique of andragogy?
Sandlin asserts that andragogy has normalized and universalized the white, European, middle class male “adult learner” who possesses values such as individualism, self-directedness, and self-fulfillment. Andragogy also has a tendency to assume that teaching and learning are politically neutral activities, rather than ones that have embedded biases that negatively affect women and other traditionally disadvantaged groups.
What, according to Sandlin, is the central Africentric critique of andragogy?
Sandlin asserts that the methods, goals, and purposes of adult education are based primarily on Eurocentric values. In this view, education is not a neutral activity but one that reflects the cultural, social, political, and philosophical imperatives of society. These biases can be seen, for example, in who receives training in the workplace, what topics are considered legitimate for training, and what sorts of classroom behaviours are viewed as desirable.
What purpose(s) does a needs assessment serve?
A needs assessment (or needs analysis) seeks to identify gaps in worker or organizational performance, prioritizing those needs, and selecting an appropriate intervention. If the intervention includes training, a needs assessment can help trainers develop training outcomes as well as identify who needs what training.
What are the three broad types of analysis that may be performed during a needs analysis, and what kinds of information does each type of analysis provide?
The three broad types of analysis that can be performed during a needs assessment are organization analysis, task analysis, and person analysis.
Organizational analysis provides information about organizational strategies and tells us where in an organization training is required.
Task analysis provides information about the task and KSAs needed to perform a job effectively.
Person analysis tells us who needs to be trained and their level of performance.
How can environmental factors affect the need for training?
The external environment can trigger the need for training. For example, changing technologies, new competitors, and new regulatory demands can require organizations to undertake training. Economic factors, such as a booming labour market, can also result in additional training requirements as workers leave the organization and replacements are hired.
What characteristics of the workplace can facilitate training transfer?
Training transfer is the application of training to a worker’s job. Training transfer can be enhanced by cues to remind workers to apply training on the job, positive consequences for application, and support by supervisors and peers.
What are the main steps in performing a task analysis?
The six steps in task analysis include: (1) identifying target jobs, (2) obtaining a job description, (3) developing a rating scale to rate importance, difficulty, and frequency or each task, (4) survey a sample of job incumbents, (5) analyze and interpret information, and (6) provide feedback on the results.
What are the kinds of questions that a person analysis can answer?
A person analysis can answer questions such as how well does the worker perform the tasks, who requires training, and what kind(s) of training do they need?
What are the seven high-level questions that Mager and Pipe’s performance analysis flowchart asks about performance problems? Why are each of these questions important?
Mager and Pipe’s flowchart asks (1) what’s the problem, (2) is it worth solving, (3) can we apply fast fixes, (4) are consequences appropriate, (5) do they already know how, (6) are there more clues, and (7) what solution should be selected? These questions are designed to quickly triage performance problems and identify solutions, which may include training.
Using Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, what intervention would you recommend to improve the performance of a worker who comes in late to work on a regular basis despite repeated instructions to attend the workplace on time and why?
The most effective intervention will depend a bit upon the reason for the tardiness and the cost of the fix. There may be resource issues (e.g., childcare limitations or inadequate transportation) that the employer may or may not be able and willing to remedy (step 5). On the other hand, if the issue is simply that the employee is not motivated to comply, then attaching consequences to tardiness (e.g., progressive disciplinary measures) may be more effective (step 10).
Using Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, what intervention would you recommend to improve the performance of a worker who fails to consistently update inventory on the computer resulting in items being out of stock and lost sales?
The most effective intervention will depend a bit upon the reason for not updating the inventory and the cost of the fix. If expectations are unclear, we might clarify them. If there is not enough time in the day to update the inventory, we might reduce the workers’ workload or add additional staff. If updating the database negatively affects the workers’ income (e.g., the worker is paid by sale), we might consider providing pay for inventory work or altering the pay system. If the worker does not know how to update the database (or is simply slow at it), we might provide training or practice.
Using Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, what intervention would you recommend to improve the performance of a worker in a call centre who fails to provide correct answers to customer questions despite answers being available in product FAQ housed in call centre attendant database? Consider that previous performance was good, but the worker is just back from an extended medical leave and she has forgotten several call handling procedures.
The most effective intervention will depend a bit upon the reason for not looking up the answer and the cost of the fix. Given the worker’s previous good performance, it might be that the worker is simply rusty and requires some practice. On the other hand, if there have been changes in the nature of the work, training might be required. If the pace of work has increased while the worker was away, perhaps additional resources are required.
Using Mager and Pipe’s flowchart, what intervention would you recommend to improve the performance of a worker in call centre who fails to provide correct answers to customer questions despite answers being available in product FAQ housed in call centre attendant database? Consider that the worker claims she does not know how to use the search function in the database.
The most effective intervention will depend a bit upon the reason for not looking up the answer and the cost of the fix. If the worker has never received training in the database, then training would be an appropriate intervention. This is an example where starting in the middle of the flowchart (i.e., asking if there is a genuine skill deficiency) might be a more effective way to use the tool than starting at the beginning. If the worker has received training but, for some reason, refuses to implement the training, then it might be appropriate to work through the flowchart, including clarifying expectations, attaching consequences, and, ultimately, replacing the worker.
Table 3.4 in the textbook outlines various data-collection methods that can be employed during a needs analysis. Which data collection method(s) would you use to investigate whether a skills deficit was the cause of workers not meeting production quotas on a manufacturing line, and why would you choose this approach?
Table 3.4 in the textbook outlines various data-collection methods that can be employed during a needs analysis. Which data collection method(s) would you use to identify the KSAs to teach HR staff in order to ensure that trans workers are treated equitably, and why would you choose this approach?
One place to start may be interviewing trans workers (individually or as a group) to identify the issues and behaviours they identify as problematic. We might also examine printed media (e.g., academic and professional journals) to see what issues other organizations have identified as well as possible solutions. We might then ask key informants in HR to discuss these issues and behaviours to understand what is the organizational reasoning or logic (if any) behind them. This data would then give us enough information to identify what training is required as well as what other organizational changes might be necessary and viable.
Table 3.4 in the textbook outlines various data-collection methods that can be employed during a needs analysis. Which data collection method(s) would you use to identify the fire prevention and safety training content required for gas station attendants, and why would you choose this approach?
One approach might be to consult with key informants (such as fire safety professionals) about what standard fire safety training at other gas stations entails. Since this is likely a question that other organizations have grappled with, identifying what has been found necessary elsewhere would be a cost-effective starting point. You might then examine organizational records and interview staff within the organization to see whether there are specific issues or circumstances that you’ll need to incorporate into your needs analysis.
What organizational purposes do training objectives serve?
Training objectives tell us what a trainee should be able to do at the end of the training experience. This allows us to focus the training on the needs of the worker(s) and evaluate whether the training was successful.
What value do training objectives have for learners?
Objectives inform trainees of the goals of a training program and what they will be expected to learn and do at the end of a training program.
Objectives allow trainees to focus their energies on achieving specific goals, rather than waste energy on irrelevant tasks or on trying to figure out what is required of them.
Objectives communicate to employees that training is important and that they will be accountable for what they learn in training.
What are the four elements of a training objective?
- Who is to perform the desired behaviour?
- What is the actual behaviour to be used to demonstrate mastery of the training content or objective?
- Where and when is the behaviour to be demonstrated and evaluated (i.e., under what conditions)?
- What is the standard by which the behaviour will be judged?
What are the four elements of a training objective?
Who is to perform the desired behaviour?
Employees and managers are the easiest to identify. In a training situation more accurate descriptors might be “all first-level supervisors,” “anyone conducting selection interviews,” or “all employees with more than one month of experience.” The trainer is not the “who,” although it is tempting for some trainees to write, for example, that the trainer will present five hours of information on communication. The goal of the instructor is to maximize the efficiency with which all trainees achieve the specified objectives, not just present the information.
What are the four elements of a training objective?
What is the actual behaviour to be used to demonstrate mastery of the training content or objective?
Actions described by verbs like type, run, and calculate can be measured easily. Other mental activities, such as comprehend and analyze can also be described in measurable ways. This represents the essence of what it is that the trainee must be able to do as a result of the training. Therefore, it is important to clearly indicate what that behaviour will be. One way to do this is to use Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives, which includes six main categories (remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create) that are ordered from simple to complex and concrete to abstract.5 Table 4.3 lists the six main categories and subcategories.
What are the four elements of a training objective?
Where and when is the behaviour to be demonstrated and evaluated (i.e., under what conditions)?
These could include “during a 60-second typing test,” “on a ski hill with icy conditions,” “when presented with a diagram,” or “when asked to design a training session.” The tools, equipment, information, and other source materials for training should be specified. Included in this list may be things the trainee may not use, such as calculators.
What are the four elements of a training objective?
What is the standard by which the behaviour will be judged?
Is the trainee expected to type 60 words per minute with fewer than three errors? Can the trainee list five out of six purposes for training objectives?
What are three components of a training objective?
- Performance: What the trainee will be able to do after the training. In other words, what work behaviour the trainee will be able to display.
- Condition: The tools, time, and situation under which the trainee is expected to perform the behaviour. In other words, where and when the behaviour will occur.
- Criterion: The level of acceptable performance, standard, or criteria against which performance will be judged.
Why might an organization purchase training instead of developing it in-house?
Usually the answer centres on a cost-benefit analysis: Is outsourcing cheaper or is developing in-house cheaper? Sometimes internal capacity to create or deliver training is cited as a reason. But, since internal capacity could be created (at a cost), this reason is essentially another cost-benefit decision (cheaper to contract out than spend money to create capacity). Less often, there are reasons to contract out related to perceived expertise or neutrality.
How are training content, needs assessment, learning methods, and training objectives related to one another?
There is a linear and direct relationship. The needs assessment shapes the training objectives. Subsequently, the training objectives inform the training content. The training objectives and the training content shape the training method(s) that are selected.
Why do you think productive responses are said to be an effective approach to training?
Productive responses are training methods that require the trainee to actively engage with the content (e.g., use the content in a way that builds mastery). For example, language or customer service training can be delivered passively (e.g., trainee watches other people speak and perform). Or it can require the trainee to speak and perform the content. Active engagement by the learner appears to result in faster and deeper skills acquisition.
