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Definitions Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a Abstract?

A

a brief summary of a report of a research study, including aims, hypothesis, jigs, conclusions and implications

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2
Q

what is a alternative hypothesis?

A

Any hypothesis except the null hypothesis. It is the alternative to the null hypothesis

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3
Q

What is attrition?

A

The loss of participants from a study over time, which is likely to leave a biased sample or a sample that is too small for reliable analysis

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4
Q

What is boredom effect?

A

A kind of order effect in a repeated measures design, participants may do less well on a alter condition because they have lost interest

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5
Q

What is a case study?

A

A research investigation that involves a detailed study of a single individual, institution, or event. Case studies provide a rich record of human experience but are hard to generalise from

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6
Q

What are closed questions?

A

Questions that have a pre-determined range of awnsers, from which respondents select one. Produces quantitative data,

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7
Q

What is the code of ethics?

A

A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity

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8
Q

What are cohort effects?

A

An effect caused because one group of participants has unique characteristics due to time-specific experiences during their development, such as growing up during the Second World War. This can affect both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies

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9
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

A means of establishing external validity by comparing an existing test or questionnaire with the one you are interested in

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10
Q

What is a confederate?

A

An individual in a study who is not a real participant and has been instructed how to behave by the investigator

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11
Q

What is confidentiality?

A

Concerns the communication of personal information from one person to another, and the trust that the information will be protected

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12
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A variable that is not the independent variable under study but which varies systematically with the IV. Changes in the dependent variable may be due to the confounding variable rather than the IV, and therefore the outcome is meaningless. To ‘cofound’n,Dan’s to cause confusion.

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13
Q

What is content analysis?

A

A kind of observational study in which behaviour is observed indirectly in written or verbal material such as interviews, conversations, TV programmes

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14
Q

What is context validity?

A

Aims to demonstrate that the content (e.g questions) of a test/measurement represents the area of interest; concerns internal validity

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15
Q

What is a continuous variable ?

A

A variable that can take on any value within a certain range. Liking for football on a scale of 1 to 10.

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16
Q

What is the control group?

A

The condition ( in a repeated measures design) that proves a baseline measure of behaviour without the experimental treatment (IV). So that the effect of the experiment treatment may be compared to the baseline

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17
Q

What is a controlled observation?

A

A form of investigation in which behaviour is observed but under controlled conditions, as opposed to a naturalistic observation

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18
Q

What is correlation?

A

Determining the extent of an association between two variables; co-variables may not be linked at all, they may both increase together, or as one co-variable, increases the other increases

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19
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A

A experimental technique used to overcome order effects when using a repeated measures design. Counter balancing ensures that each condition is tested first or second in equal ammounts

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20
Q

What is debriefing?

A

To inform the participant of the true nature of the study and to restore them to the same state they were in at the start of the study. Debriefing is not a ethical issue, it is a way of dealing with ethical issues

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21
Q

What is deception?

A

A pp is not told the true aims of the study and thus cannot give valid consent

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22
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

A cue that makes pp unconsciously aware of the aims of the study

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23
Q

What are difference studies?

A

A king of quasi-experiment. The IV is actually not something that varies at all- it is a condition that exists. The researcher records the effect of this ‘quasi-IV’ on a dependent variable. As with a natural experiment, the lack of manipulation of thr IV and the lack of random allocation means that casual conclusions can only tentatively be drawn

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24
Q

What is directional hypothesis?

A

States the direction of the predicted difference between 2 conditions or 2 groups of pp

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25
What is a double blind design?
Neither the pp nor the experimenter is aware of the research aims and other important details, and thus have no expectations
26
What is ecological validity?
A form of external validity; the ability to generalise a research effect beyond the particular setting in which it is demonstrated to other settings. Ecological validity is established by representativeness and generalisability
27
What are ethical issues?
Concern questions of right and wrong. They arise in research where there are conflicting sets of values between researchers and pp concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a research study,
28
What are ethical guidelines?
A set of principles designed to help professionals behave honestly and with integrity
29
What is a ethics committee?
A group of people within a research institution that must approve of a study before it begins
30
What is event sampling ?
An observational technology in which a count is kept of the number of times a certain behaviour occurs
31
What is experimental design?
A set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as pp variables in a experiment
32
What are extraneous variables?
Do not vary systematically with the IV and therefore do not act as an alternative IV but,p may have an affect on the DV. They are a nuisance variable that muddy the waters, making it more difficult to detect a significant effect
33
What is a field experiment
A controlled experiment that is conducted outside a lab. The IV is still manipulated by the experimenter, and therefore casual relationships can be demonstrated
34
What is independent groups design?
Pp are allocated to two groups representing different levels of the IV. Allocation is usually done using random techniques
35
What is a interview
A research method or technique that involves a face to face, real time interaction
36
What is a laboratory
An environment which can be controlled by the researcher. In particular a researcher wishes to control extraneous variables and, in an experiment, needs to manipulate the independent variables,
37
What are longitudinal study’s?
A study concerned over a long period of time. Often a form of repeated measures design in which pp are assessed on two or more occasions as they get older, However, some longitudinal research is not experimental
38
What is the lottery method?
A random method of selection. Each member of the target population is given a unique number, the number as then thoroughly mixed. Then, without looking the researcher selects the required no. Of pp
39
What is a matched pairs design?
Pairs of pp are matched in terms of key variables such as age, and IQ. One member of each pair is allocated to one of the conditions under test and the second is allocated to the other
40
What is meta-analysis?
A researcher looks at the findings from a number of different studies in order to reach a general conclusion about a particular hypothesis
41
c
A research method in which the experimenter can not manipulate the IV directly, but where it varies naturally, and the effect on a dependent variable can be observed
42
What is non-directional hypothesis?
Predicts simply that there is a difference brtweenn2 conditions or two groups of pp but does not specify the direction
43
What is a null hypothesis?
The assumption of no relationship between variables being studied
44
What are open question?
Questions that invite respondents to provide their own awnsers rather than one provided. Tend to produce qualities data
45
What is opportunity sampling?
A sample of pp produced by selecting people who are most easily available at the time of the study
46
What are pp variables?
Characteristics of individual pp that might influence the outcome of the study
47
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale trial run of a study to test any aspects of the design, with a view to making improvements
48
What is the practice effect?
A kind of order effects , in a repeated measures design, pp may do better on one condition that the other because they had completed it first and therefore may have improved their ability to perform
49
What is presumptive consent?
A method of dealing with lack of valid consent or deception, by asking a group of people who are similar to the pp whether they would agree to take part in a study. If this group of people consents to the procedure in the proposed study, it is presumed that the real pp would have also agreed
50
What is primary data.
Information that is collected from first hand experience
51
What is psychological harm?
When a study causes embarrassment, lowered self esteem or changed a persons attitudes
52
What is qualities data?
Information in words that cannot be counted or quantified. Qualities data can be turned into qualitive data by placing them in categories and counting frequency,
53
What is quantities data?
Information that represents how much or how long, or how many etc…
54
What is a quasi-experiment?
Studies that are ‘almost’ experiments, a researcher has not manipulated the IV directly.
55
What is random sampling?
A sample of pp produced by using a random technique such that every member of the target population has an equal change of being selected
56
What is a repeated measures design?
Each pp takes part in every condition under test
57
What is sampling?
The selection of pp from the sampling frame with the aim of producing a representative selection of people from that group
58
What is secondary data?
Information that is used in a research study that was collected by someone else or for a purpose other than the current one.
59
What are self-report techniques.?
Data collection techniques where a pp describes their behaviour, eg questionnaires, interviews or diary studies
60
What is self selected sampling?
A sample of pp that relies solely on volunteers to make up the sample,.
61
Blind study
A type of research in which the pp is not aware of the research aims or which condition of the experiment they are receiving
62
What is snowball sampling?
Relies on referrals from units, pp to generate addition pp
63
What is social desirability?
A distortion I’m the way people awnsers question- to present in a. Better light
64
What are standardised procedures?
A set of procedures that are the same for all pp in order to be able to repeat the study. This includes standardised instructions
65
What is stratified sampling?
A sample of pp produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the target population
66
What is target population
The group of people that the researcher is interested in. The group of people from whom a sample is drawn. The group of people about whom generalisations can be made
67
What is valid consent?
Pp must be given comprehensive information concerning the nature and purpose of the research and their role in it, in order to make a decision whether or not to pp
68
What is a brain scan used for in Psychology?
To observe and measure brain strucutre and activity, fmri, pet and EEG
69
Cross sectional study
A study comparing differnt groups at a time
70
Inter rater reloability
The consistency between differnt observers rating or recording behaviour
71
What is iest-retest reliability
The consistency of results when the test is repeated over time
72
What is split-half reliabilty
Measuring internal consistency by comparing 2 halves of a test
73
What is face validity
Whether the etst appears to measure what it calims to on the surface
74
What is content validity
Whether the test fully represents the topic or construct being measured
75
What is construct validity
Whether the test measures the intended theoretical concept
76
What is concurrent validity
Comparing a new test with an estabilished test to check for agreement
77
What is preducitve validity
How well a test predicts future behaviour or outocmes
78
Strenghts of lab experiemnts
-High control over variables, increased internal validity. -
79
Weaknesses of lab experiments
-Low ecological validity and may not refelct reral life behaviour
80
Strengths of field experiments
High ecological validity and natural setting
81
Weakness of field experiments
Less control and risk of cofounding variables
82
Strenth of quasi-experiments
Ethical way to study real world variables that cant be manipulated
83
Weaknesses of quasi experiemnts
Lack of random allocation, lower internal validity
84
Strength of observations
Can capture natural behaviour, especially if covert
85
Weaknesses of observations
Observer bias or demand characteristics if covert
86
Strengths of self-report techniques
Can access thoughts/feelings directly from participants
87
Weaknesses of self report
Risk of social desirability bias or poor recall
88
Strengths od random sampling
Redcues sampling bias, more representative
89
Weakness of random sampling
Time consuming may miss important subgroups
90
Strengths of oppurtunity smapling
Quick and convenient
91
weaknesses of oppurtunity sampling
High risk of bias so not representiative
92
Strength of stratified sampling
Proportional and representative
93
Weakness of stratified sampling
time consuming and complex ot organise
94
strength of self selected sampling
participants are motivated and willing
95
weaknesses of self selcted sampling
unrepresentative only certain types of people volunteer
96
strenghts of independent groups design
no order effects
97
weaknesses of independt groups design
participant variables may affect results
98
strengths of repeated measures
controls participant variables
99
weaknesses of repeated measures
risk of order effects, needs counter balancing
100
strenghts of matched pairs design
reduced participant variables without order effects
101
weaknesses of matched pairs
time-consuming to find good macthes
102
strengths of quantitavie data
easy to analyze statistically and compare
103
weaknesses of quantitative data
lacks depth/detail
104
strenths of quantitaive data
rich, in depth insights
105
weaknesses of qualitative data
harder to analyze and subjective interpretation
106
strength of lab researhc
high control and cause and effect is establsihed
107
weaknesses of lab research
artifical setting and low ecological validity
108
strength of field research
natural setting, higher ecological validity
109
weaknesses of field research
less control risk of cofounding variables
110
strength of online research
larger, diverse samples and cost effective
111
weaknesses of online research
data quality issues, redcued control over enviroment
112
strengths of milgrams study
high internal validity due to controlled setting, influential findings
113
weaknesses of milgrams study
major ethical concerns, and low ecologicla validity
114
strengths of kohlbergs stdy
longitudal, insight into development supported moral stage theory
115
weakness of kohlbergs study
cultural bias, moral reasoning does not equal moral bejaviour
116
MRIscan
magnetic resonance imaging, involves the use of a magnetic field causing atoms of the brain to change their position and emit signals
117
strengths of fmri
high spatial resolution,a ccurate location of brain activity
118
weaknesses of mri
Long time to complete and low resolution
119
what is a PET scan
uses radioactive tracers t show brain activity and metablosim
120
strengths of pet scan
can detect abnormalities like tumours or dementia
121
weaknesses of PET scans
invasive, expensive, lower resolution than fMRI
122
What is a EEG
Measures electrical activity in the brain via electrodes
123
strengths of eeg
excellent temporal resolution, real time activity
124
weaknesses of eeg
poor spatial resolution, cant pinpoint exact location of activity
125
whichtest is used for a correlatio
spearmans rank
126
which test is used for nominal, independent data
chi-sqaured test
127
which test is used for ordinal, independt data
mann-whitney U test
128
which test is used for ordinal, repeated measures
wilcoxon signed ranked test
129
which test is sued for nomiinal, repeated measures
sign test
130
what does p < 0.05 mean?
The results are statistically significant with less than 5% chance of being due to random error
131
what are critical values
Values from statistical tables used to determine if results are significant
132
what are observed/calucalayed values
The value obtained from your statistical test, compred to the critical value
133
What is a target population?
The entire group a researcher is interested in studying and generalizing findings to.
134
What is a sampling frame?
A list of individuals from the target population who could be selected for the sample.
135
What is systematic sampling?
Selecting every nth person from a list of the population.
136
Strength of systematic sampling?
Reduces bias and is more objective than opportunity sampling.
137
Weakness of systematic sampling?
Risk of unrepresentativeness if there's a hidden pattern.
138
What is quota sampling?
Selecting participants to match the proportions of subgroups in the population.
139
Strength of quota sampling?
: Ensures representation of key groups.
140
Weakness of quota sampling?
Still subject to researcher bias and not random.
141
What is event sampling?
Recording every time a specific behavior/event occurs.
142
Strength of event sampling
Useful for infrequent behaviors.
143
Weakness of event sampling?
May miss context or overload observer during frequent events.
144
What is time sampling?
Recording behavior at set time intervals (e.g., every 30 seconds).
145
Strength of time sampling?
Reduces observer fatigue and is more manageable.
146
Weakness of time sampling?
May miss important behaviors between intervals.
147
What are probability values (p-values) used for?
o determine how likely it is that results occurred by chance.
148
What is a significance level?
The threshold for rejecting the null hypothesis, often set at p < 0.05.
149
What is an observed (calculated) value?
The result from a statistical test to be compared to a critical value.
150
What are the measures of central tendency?
Mean (∑x ÷ n), median (middle value), mode (most frequent value).
151
Strength of the mean?
Uses all data → most sensitive.
152
Weakness of the mean?
Affected by outliers.
153
What are the measures of dispersion?
Range and standard deviation.
154
How is standard deviation calculated?
√∑(x − x̅)² ÷ (n−1)
155
What does a low standard deviation mean?
Data is tightly clustered around the mean → more consistent.
156

Psychology research methods (2 decks)

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