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Question 1

Attachement

Answer 1

The development of a mutual and intense emotional relationship between and infant and caregiver.

Question 2

Freud Cupboard Theory

Answer 2

Mother-child bond is formed only because the child needs nourshiment.

Question 3

How did Harlow challenge the cupboard theory?

Answer 3

He conducted an experiment with monkeys fed by a wire mother and a cloth mother. Spend more time with the cloth mother despite being fed by it or not.
- contact comfort and not nourishment

Question 4

Bowlbys internal working model?

Answer 4

• Children create scheme of themselves, caregiver, and their interaction with their caregiver.

Question 5

Ainsworth Strange SItuation Paradigm (child attachement behavior ):

Answer 5

A: To measure children’s attachement behavior based on their reactions when a mother leaves or returns.
Method:
1) Conducted a strange situation test, series of separations and reunions with kids and their moms.
2) Observed mother-child interactions through the Ganda Project in Uganda.
F:
- Types of attachement:
Insecurely attached/ avoidant (20%), Securely attached (70%), Insecurely attached (10%).

Question 6

Hazan and Shaver (adult attachement theory)

Answer 6

A: to examine how adult attachement behaviors reflect early attachement experiences.
M:
- Love quiz in local newspaper where they identified their attachement styles.
- asked to report their parents attachement styles.
R:
- Those who were securely attached had responsive parents.
- Those who were insecurely attached had unresponsive parents.
- ambivalent ppl had inconsistent parenting.
f: THERE IS A CORRELATION BUT THE STUDY CAUTIONS AGAINST DETERMINISTIC APPROACHES.

Question 7

Whats a strength of Hazan and Shafer

Answer 7

Supported by other reseacrh like simpson et al.

Question 8

Simpson et al

Answer 8

Aim: test the role of attachement style in adult relationships.
1) administered questionnaires to determine the couples attachement styles.
2) the couples discussed a problem in their relationship.
3) observations were videotaped and a team of researchers coded the couples’ behaviors.
- insecurely attached couples tended to be anxious and employ negative strategies during the discussion.
(shows that attachement styles play a role in how people resolve conflicts).

Question 9

Gender Roles

Answer 9

Behavior that corresponds to a conceived gender.

Question 10

Evaluation of the Strange Situation Paradigm:

Answer 10

• Highly standardizes, allows replications across time/culture.
• Modeled on everyday, common experiences (ecologically valid).
• Exposure to stress may not mimick real-life settings.
• Highly Artificial, Limited.
• Lacks cross-culture validity.

Question 11

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988)

Answer 11

A: Meta-analysis of 32 studies involving eight countries and over 2 thousand infants.

F: - Culture differ in the distribution of type A, B, and C attachement patterns.
- Japanese studies showed a complete absence of Type A and a high proportion of Type C.
- Type B was most common, Type A was more common in western societies, and Type C is more common in Japan.

Question 12

Hazan and Shaver Evaluation:

Answer 12

Limitations:
- Based on a self-selected sample, not representative.
- Data is self-reported.
- Sampling bias as female participants outnumbered male participants.

Question 13

Sex

Answer 13

Male/Female biological identity (chromos, hormones, internal and external reproductive organs).

Question 14

Gender

Answer 14

Refers to a characteristic that a society or culture considers masculine, feminine, or another gender.

Question 15

Gender identity:

Answer 15

• Our perception of ourselves as male or female.

Question 16

Gender Roles

Answer 16

Behavior that corresponds to a perceived gender. Can be gender-consistent or inconsistent.

Question 17

Sexual Orientation

Answer 17

Patterns of emotional romantic, and physical attraction.

Question 18

Gender Constancy

Answer 18

The realization that gender is permanent and will not change.

Question 19

White Edwards (Theory of Gender Identity etc):

Answer 19

A: Studied children aged 3-11 in Kenya, Japan, India, the Philippines, Mexico, and the USA.
F: Girls were more nurturing.
- Boys were more aggressive, dominant, and engaged in more rough tumble and play.
- Gender differences in the six cultures are socialization pressures.

Question 20

Kolhberg (1966) - Gender Identity:

Answer 20

• Children as young as two years can accurately identify their own or someone else’s gender.
• Conducted interviews with children aged 2-3, they often believed they could become a different gender when they grew up.

Question 21

Biological Explanation of Gender Identity:

Answer 21

• gender developement is dictated by physiological processes.
• During pre-natal development, sex hormones are released, causing external and internal reproductive organs to become male or female.
• It is the absence of male hormones that makes the gender difference.

Question 22

The Theory of Psychosexual Diffrentiation

Answer 22

• Testosterone is the key to developing the body and mind.
• Prenatal exposure to hormones is the most important factor in the development of gender identity, socialization plays a secondary role.

Question 23

McGinely et al (1974), for psychosexual diffrentiation:

Answer 23

• Case study on batista family in the Dominican Republic.
• Had a genetic mutation where children had the genitalia of girls at birth but developed into men at puberty.
• This was due to lack or production of testosterone that prevented the penis development despite the XY chromo.
• During interviews the adults demonstrated masculine gender roles and heterosexual behavior, recalled never being happy doing ‘‘girl things’’
• Indicated a strong biological origin of gender identity.

Question 24

The biosocial theory of gender development:

Answer 24

• Socialization is the most important factor in gender identity.
• The interaction between biological and social factors is important.
• Biological factors such as hormones and their social sexual label determined the child’s gender identity.

Question 25

Money and Erhard (1972), for biosocial theory:

Answer 25

M: Case study on ppl with ambiguous genitals. - Children who were born genetically female but raised to be males thought of themselves as males. - Money theorized that it is possible to reassign sex within the first two years of life.

Question 26

Evaluation of Biological Arguments for gender identity:

Answer 26

- Hormonal influences = Well documented: exposure to different levels of androgens and estrogens has been linked to gender-typical behaviors. - Structural differences in the transgender brain that align with the experienced gender rather than sex-assigned gender. - Supported by animal research; however this may lack construct validity when applied to humans. - Reductionist arguments. - limited generalizability.

Question 26

Gender Schema theory According to Martin and Halverson:

Answer 26

- Superordinate schema: helps children categorize things into basic male and female categories. - Own-sex schema: are used to identify and learn information consistent with a child's own sex. - Schema play a role in self-socialization. - Children have gender schema about their sex (in-group) and the other sex (out-group).

Question 26

Gender Scheme Theory

Answer 26

- Once children can categorize boys and girls and recognize their group, they will seek information to build up their schema.

Question 26

More on Gender Schema Theory

Answer 26

- Children's tendency to categorize based on gender leads to them to perceive boys and girls as different. - They then identify themselves as male or female > observe same-sex models more carefully > motivated to imitate them.

Question 26

Martin and Halverson - for gender schema

Answer 26

A: Experiment to investigate the effect of gender schema on the memory of children aged 5-6. M: Showed the children pictures of males and females doing gender-consistent activities and gender-inconsistent activities. - asked what they had seen in the pictures a weak later. R: - The children had distorted memories of pictures that were incongruent with their gender schema. - showed more detailed memory when the stories were consistent with their schema. F: - Children seek only the information that confirms their gender schema.

Question 26

Martin et al (For gender schema):

Answer 26

- Follow up study for Martin and Halverson. M: 1) Presented 4 year olds with gender neutral toys. 2) asked what they thought of the toy. 3) asked what other boys and girls would think of the toy. R: - Predicted that children of the same gender would like the toys as much as they did and that children of another gender would not.

Question 26

Strengths of Gender Schema:

Answer 26

(S) - explains why children gender roles do not change after middle childhood. - explains the maintenance of gender schemas due to attention to gender-consistent information.

Question 26

Limitations of gender schema:

Answer 26

- the self-socialization concept is too vague and unmeasurable. - does not explain unconforming children. - does not adress biological factors.

Question 26

Social Cognitive theory opening:

Answer 26

- Children develop based on patterns that are imposed upon them by gatekeepers. - Two important factors: punishment/reward for gender appropriate or gender inappropriate behavior (vicarious reinforcement). - Modelling the behavior of same-sex models.

Question 26

Fagot (for Sociocultural factors in social cognitive theory):

Answer 26

A: Series of Naturalistic observations of parent-child interactions. M: - Toddlers and their parents were observed using an observation checklist. - examined parents behavior when child's behavior was ''gender-inappropriate''. - Followed-up by interviewing parents. R: - The parents' perception of their interaction with their children did not correlate with what was observe. F: Not a conscious behavior.

Question 26

Evaluation of Fagot et al:

Answer 26

- Assumptions: argues that reward and punishment affect children's gender development (cannot be determined as the study is not longitudinal). - reductionist assumption that only rewards and punishments play a role in gender role development (does not consider modeling, media, parents, peers, etc..). -

Question 26

Sroufe et al (for sociocultural explanations of gender identity):

Answer 26

A: - Observed children aged around 10-11. F: - Those that did not behave in a gender-stereotyped way were least popular. - Establish a kind of social control concerning gender very early. - Peer socialization is an important factor in gender development.

Question 27

Glascock (media and gender identity):

Answer 27

- Content analysis. - Since the 1990s, there has been an increase in the number of strong female characters in the media. - may account for some change in women's behavior, - bidirectionally ambiguous.

Question 28

Strengths of sociocultural explanations:

Answer 28

- Consider social and cultural context of gender socialization. - predicts that children acquire internal standards by personal/vicarious experience (supported by empirical evidence).

Question 29

Sociocultural explanations weaknesses:

Answer 29

- cannot explain the difference between degrees of conformity between girls and boys. - research contradicts that gender is passively acquired; children are active members of socialization. - does not take into account the complexity of the interplay between cognitive, biological, environmental factors, etc..) - does not explain how most caregivers are women and gender development is still different (socialization and peers, ect)

Question 30

Silva et al (1992), globalization and gender identity:

Answer 30

A: See if globalization affected gender role identity in a sample of Sri Lankan children. F: - More than half of girls saw an educated and employed woman as ideal (different from traditional role). - demonstrates that factors outside of culture may have a stronger influence than the culture itself.

Question 31

Theory of Mind

Answer 31

- The understanding of private mental states, processes, and knowledge in oneself. The ability to predict other individuals behavior by inferring their motivation.

Question 32

Gender Constancy

Answer 32

Children's realization that their gender cannot be changes regardless of appearances.

Question 33

Importance of the development of theory of mind (SDRN):

Answer 33

- Symbolic Play: Understanding and re-enacting others' perspectives. - Deception: Intentionally lying/instilling a false belief to protect ourselves. - Reading comprehension: understanding characters intentions and desires. - Narratives: monitering and maintaining listeners attention, explaining other ppls thoughts and emotions.

Question 34

Stages of theory of mind:

Answer 34

Pre-theory of mind: - gaze-following (seeing where another person gives attention) - proto-declarative pointing. - seeing leads to knowing (knowing that others know). Desire stage - ability to detect what people want. Belief-desire stage of theory of mind: -children are able to make mental representations of the world. - understand that people have different desires from their own. - Representational Stage: children are interacting more with other children in play activities, understand that another person's beliefs may be false. -

Question 35

Repacholi and Gopnik (Theory of Mind):

Answer 35

A: Get a better understanding of when children are able to grasp different desires. M: 1) sample was 14 and 18-month olds, presented with two bowls of snacks (goldfish, raw broccoli). 2) Researcher showed disgust when eating the crackers and delight with broccoli. 3) Asked the child to give them something to eat. R: - the 14-month olds offered food they themselves preferred. - the 18-month olds gave the food the research liked F: - made an inference that the experimenters beliefs were different from their own. - children develop the belief-desire stage earlier than expected.

Question 36

Baron-Cohen et al (for theory of mind, false belief testing):

Answer 36

A: To test if children realize that their thoughts and beleifs may be different from others. M: The sally-anne task: Sally has a basket, ann has a box>Sally puts marble in basket, goes walking > anne puts marble in the box > sally comes back, where will she look for her marble?, where is the marble?, Where was the marble in beginning? R: - found that all children answered the 2nd and 3rd questions, children under four years old were not able to answer correctly.

Question 37

Secure Attachement

Answer 37

- Upset when the mother leaves, happy when returns. - Anxiety with strangers. - Mother is interested in the child's play and communicates with child.

Question 38

Avoidant Attachement:

Answer 38

- Indifference when the mother leaves, avoids contact when she returns. - Not afraid of strangers. - Uninterested mother, insensitive.

Question 39

Ambivalent Attachement:

Answer 39

- Upset when mother leaves the room, refuses comfort. - Seeks comforts , rejects at the same time. - Extreme anxiety with strangers. - Inconsistent mother.

Question 40

Disorganized Attachment

Answer 40

- No reaction when mother leaves or returns. - Not afraid of strangers. - Chronically depressed.

Question 41

Biological Theory of Gender Identity (Understanding)

Answer 41

- - Gender dev is dictated by pysiological processes within the individual that develops as part of physical maturation. - Hormones released during prenatal development cause external and internal reproductive organs to become male or female. - It is the presence of androgens that makes the gender difference.