Development Flashcards
(187 cards)
1
Q
What are the major area changes from a baby to adult?
A
- Perception
- Mobility
- Cognition
- Communication
- Socialisation
- Emotion-regulation
2
Q
Why are developmental changes important when doing research?
A
• Developmental stages important in research questions in choosing age groups as some children can do more than others
3
Q
What are expectations for vision when the child is 0-4 months old?
A
- Eyes may wander- inability to focus and coordinate eye movement
- Range of focus approximately 15 to 25 cm
- Only sensitive to high contrast
- —Black, white and red toys
4
Q
What are expectations for vision when the child is 5-8 months old?
A
- Depth perception allows a 3D view of the world
- Colour vision is now well developed
5
Q
What are expectations for vision when the child is 9-12 months?
A
-Ability to judge distance is now fairly good
6
Q
When is hearing developed in a child and what sounds do they prefer at first?
A
o Inner ear is fully developed by the start of the third trimester
Foetuses respond to sounds
Newborns have a preference for their mother’s voice over the voice of another woman
o Newborns are sensitive to patterns and organised sound
Preferential orientation to speech and music
7
Q
How is hearing tested at birth?
A
o Tested at birth- evoked otoacoustic emissions (EOAE)
A tiny microphone picks up feedback if hearing is functional
• Cochlear hair cells expanding and contracting
Or- does the infant orient to sound (a rattle, a voice)
8
Q
What are gross motor skills?
A
-Large movements using arms, legs, feet or whole body
9
Q
What gross motor development is expected at 1-4 months?
A
Reflex movements, lifts head when prone, sits with support
10
Q
What gross motor development is expected at 5-9 months?
A
Sits without support
11
Q
What gross motor development is expected at 5-10 months?
A
Pulls to standing
12
Q
What gross motor development is expected at 5-11 months?
A
Crawls
13
Q
What gross motor development is expected at 10-17 months
A
Stands then walks alone
14
Q
What gross motor development is expected at `18-30 months?
A
Runs, jumps
15
Q
What are fine motor skills?
A
Smaller movements using fingers, toes and facial muscles
16
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 2 months?
A
Holds object briefly if placed in head
17
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 3-4 months?
A
Reaches for dangling object, inspects fingers, moves object towards mouth
18
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 4-5 months?
A
Holds two objects, transfers object from hand to hand
19
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 5-6 months?
A
Bang objects together
20
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 6 months?
A
Reaches for, grabs and retains objects, manipulates and examines objects
21
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 7-8 months?
A
Pulls string to obtain object, grasps with thumb and fingers (four finger grip)
22
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 8-10 months?
A
Can grip and release objects
23
Q
What fine motor development is expected at 10-12 months?
A
Pincer grip (thumb and forefinger), can put 3+ objects in a container
24
Q
How does motor control develop biologically at birth and development of foetus?
A
Motor control develops in 2 directions
• Cephalo-caudal (head to toe)
• Proximo-distal (midline to extremities)
Spinal cord and organs develop before arms and legs
25
What is required for motor skills to develop in children?
Stimuli (physical environment)
Interactions and praise (parents, siblings…)
Drive and motivation
Personality
Genuinely delayed motor skills may indicate a problem that needs remediation
• But no benefit from trying to teach motor skills early
26
What are Piaget's stages of cognitive development?
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
27
When does the sensorimotor stage occur?
Birth to 2 years
28
When does the preoperational stage occur?
2-6 years
29
When does the concrete operational stage occur?
7-12 years
30
When does the formal operational stage occur?
12+ years
31
What is the sensorimotor stage?
Infant experiences the world through immediate sensory impressions and actions. Infant is not able to represent the world independently of direct sensory experience
32
What is the preoperational stage?
Children represent the world with words and images, but cannot manipulate/transform these images. Little evidence of logical reasoning
33
What is the concrete operational stage?
Children can manipulate mental representations. Can reason logically about concrete events and objects, but not abstract concepts
34
What is the formal operational stage?
Teenager is able to reason logically about concrete events and abstract symbols
35
What is egocentric thinking and until when does it occur?
• Egocentric thinking (until age of 7-ish)
o Child unable to see a situation from another’s point of view
o Child assumes that other people see, hear and feel exactly the same as child does
36
What is object permanence and until when does it occur? Is there a gray area between object permanence and not?
• Object permanence (achieved by the end of sensorimotor period)
o The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed
o Piaget argued that it was the infants increasing motor abilities (to touch and handle objects) that allowed for the development of object permanence
o Associated with separation anxiety
o Sometimes, demonstrate A not B error
If object hidden under cloth A repeatedly and then hidden under cloth B, child will look under cloth A and think the object has disappeared even though it could find it before
Demonstrates an incomplete schema of object permanence
Perseveration error- where the object was not where it is
37
What is expressive language?
• Expressive “language”- communication bids made by the infant (includes verbal and non-verbal communication)
38
What is receptive language?
• Receptive “language”- evidence of the infant receiving or understanding communication bids made by another
39
What are vocalisations?
• Vocalisations- sounds made by the infant in an attempt to communicate
40
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 3 months old?
- Maintains eye contact when spoken to
- Cries differently for different needs
- Coos, goos, and smiles
41
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 6 months old?
- Begins babbling with p, b and m sounds
- Vocalises to gain attention and express feelings
- Uses and produces different kinds of sounds
42
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 9 months old?
- Produces 4+ sounds in babbling
- Participates in vocal turn taking
- Begins using hand movements to communicate wants and needs
43
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 12 months old?
- Says one or two words
- Imitates speech sounds
- Produces jargon: strings of speech-like babbling
44
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 15 months old?
May use 4-6 different words
- Imitate simple familiar words and sounds
- Combines sounds and gestures
45
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 18 months old?
- Uses 20 words (mostly nouns)
- Responds to questions
- Continues to produce jargon
46
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 21 months old?
- Uses words more than gestures
- Consistently imitates new words
- Vocabulary of 20-50 single words
47
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 24 months old?
- Uses at least 50 words
- Beginning to use 2-word phrases
- Uses early pronouns
48
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 30 months old?
- Consistently uses 2-3 words phrases
- Produces direction words
- At least 50% of speech is understood by caregiver
49
What expressive language capabilities do children have by 36 months old?
- Produces 4-5 word sentences
- Uses plurals
- Most speech is understood by caregiver
50
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 3 months?
- Shows awareness of a speaker
- Watches speaker’s mouth or eyes
- Quiets or smiles when spoken to
51
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 6 months?
- Turns head to follow direction of sound
- Listens and responds when spoken to
- Notices toys that make sounds
52
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 9 months?
Consistently responds to own name
- Looks at familiar objects and people when named
- Follows some routine commands paired with gestures
53
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 12 months?
- Understands up to 50 words
- Responds to simple directions
- Joint attention; follow your gaze and points
54
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 15 months?
- Consistently follows simple directions
- Maintains attention to pictures
- Can identify 1-2 body parts when named
55
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 18 months?
- Points at familiar objects and people in pictures
- Understands early direction words
- Responds to yes/no questions with head shake/nod
56
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 21 months?
- Understands some emotion words
- Understands some pronouns
- Identifies 3-5 body parts when named
57
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 24 months?
- Understands more than 300 words
- Understands action words
- Enjoys listening to stories
58
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 30 months?
- Follows 2-steps directions
- Consistently understands basic nouns, verbs, pronouns
- Understands mine and yours
59
What receptive language capabilities do children have by 36 months?
- Understands opposites
- Simple understanding of concepts like color, space, time
- Recognises how objects are used
60
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 1 months old?
- Lifts head when lying on tummy
- Responds to sound
- Stares at faces
61
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 2 months old?
- Vocalises: gurgles and coos
- Follows objects across field of vision
- Notices his hands
- Holds head up for short periods
62
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 3 months old?
- Recognizes your face and scent
- Holds head steady
- Visually tracks moving objects
63
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 4 months old?
- Smiles, laughs
- Can bear weight on legs
- Coos when you talk to him
64
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 5 months old?
- Distinguishes between bold colors
| - Plays with hands and feet
65
What are mastered skills that most kids should be able to do at 6 months old?
- Turns toward sounds and voices
- Imitates sounds
- Rolls over in both directions
66
What are physical skills that 1 year olds should have?
- Sits without support
- Holds biscuit or bottle
- Crawls
67
What are physical skills that 2 year olds should have?
- Climbs onto chair
- Kicks and throws a ball
- Feeds themselves
68
What are physical skills that 3 year olds should have?
- Holds crayons with fingers
- Gets dressed with help
- Jumps over low objects
- Holds crayons with fingers
- Gets dressed with help
- Jumps over low objects
69
What are social emotional skills that 1 year olds should have?
- Its wary of strangers
| - Explores when parent is nearby but returns for reassurance
70
What are social emotional skills that 2 year olds should have?
- Begins to share and cooperate when playing
| - Seeks comfort when upset
71
What are social emotional skills that 3 year olds should have?
- Plays simple make-believe games
| - Doesn’t like sharing toys
72
What are cognitive skills that 1 year olds should have?
- Bangs two objects together
- Responds to own name
- Shows interest in pictures books
73
What are cognitive skills that 2 year olds should have?
- Recognises self in mirror
- Points to objects when named
- Selects games and puts them away
74
What are cognitive skills that 3 year olds should have?
- Begins to count with numbers
- Recognises similarities and differences
- Can follow two or more simple directions
75
What are language skills that 1 year olds should have?
- Says words like ‘Mama’ and ‘Dada’
- Waves goodbye
- Imitates hand clapping
76
What are language skills that 2 year olds should have?
- Follows simple commands
- Says first name
- Begins to use two-word sentences
77
What are language skills that 3 year olds should have?
- Asks lots of questions
- Copies words and action
- Sings songs
78
What is cultural transmission?
way a group of people or animals within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information
79
Why is there a need for communication?
• Learning styles are greatly influenced by how a culture socializes with its children and young people
• In humans- necessity to communicate and form relationships with others as infants as infants are extremely dependent creatures and need adults/older children for survival
o Communication allows baby to respond to other’s needs and to get its needs met
80
Describe Wilcox's (1969) study and results
Infants have a preference for schematic faces by 4 or 5 months
o Normal and scrambled versions were equated for number of pattern elements, symmetry and external contour
o No information about “innate” processes
81
Describe Turati's (2004) results
Newborns prefer stimuli that is top-heavy and congruent: non-nativist hypothesis
82
Describe Johnson et al's (1991) study
o Birth to 2 months: at 5 weeks no preference for human face – and as grow older, show decreased interest in it and more interest in unknown stimuli
o For above and below 31 days:
Put baby in swivel chair and swivelled it and measured how long they looked at it while in the swivel chair
Found that baby looked at face stimulus longer if below 31 days
83
What is CONSPEC?
mechanism present from birth that detects face stimuli in the periphery and directs attention to it (CONSPEC)
84
What is CONLERN?
o After 2 months- automatic processes (CONSPEC) begin to be replaced by learned processes (CONLERN)
85
What is the interaction between CONSPEC and CONLERN?
10 week olds discriminate between facial and non-facial configurations and there is little evidence of recognition via learning processes before 2 months
By 5 months, CONLERN has acquired sufficient knowledge about faces such that static schematic faces are less interesting than novel stimuli
86
What is Darwin's view of infant emotions?
• Darwin- perception of emotions, in the most basic form, is direct and not mediated by learning or secondary processes. Infants have impressions of other people’s emotions
87
Describe Haviland's and Lelwica's study (1987)
o Mothers posed happy, sad and angry facial expression
When mothers posed happy, baby showed joy
When mothers posed sad, baby about to start to cry
When mothers posed angry, no movement from baby- very still
88
In terms of communication and sociability, according to Trevarthan, what are infants born with?
o Infant is born with awareness specifically receptive to the subjective states in other persons
o Natural sociability of infants serve to intrinsically motivate companionship, or cooperative awareness
89
For infants to share mental control with other persons what 2 skills must they have?
Subjectivity- able to exhibit to others the rudiments of individual consciousness and intentionality
Intersubjectivity- Infants must be able to adapt or fit this subjective control to the subjectivity of others
90
How does communication proceed between the baby and carer under normal conditions?
o Dance of communication between baby and carer
Under normal conditions:
• Mother-infant communication has a conversational quality
• Infants and their mothers can be seen to take turns
• They respond to one another in a contingent manner
o Found normal, happy protoconversational games need mutual awareness and purposeful replies, with both parties in immediate sympathetic contact
91
What study did Trevarthen (1985) make involving pertubation and what were the results?
o Use of the still-face procedure, pioneered by Tronick in the 1970s, suggested that perturbing maternal behaviours might provide a window of infant socio-cognitive understanding
4 infants between six and 12 weeks
Intensive study of a small number of children
Two perturbation paradigms (+1)
• Still face
o Infant signs of protest and distress
• Delayed relay
o Rapid shift to negative behaviours provoked without protest, infants seemed puzzled or confused
• Interruption
o Infants became quite and less positive but not distressed or avoidant
Infants filmed interacting with their mothers
92
What did L.Alan Sroufe think?
o L.Alan Sroufe at that time believe smiling in 2- months olds to be completely passive process- not until third month that psychological processing of the stimulus content (recognition) leads to a smile
93
What are the effects of maternal depression on children?
• Still face paradigm models maternal depression paradigm
• Failure of contingent maternal responding to infant signals, by way of deliberate perturbation or maternal depression, typically has a disruptive and disorganizing effect on infants under 4 months of age
• Maternal depression can cause intrusiveness or lack of contact to child
• Early, protracted maternal depression also puts children at heightened risk for emotional problems
• Argued that early patterns of mother-infant interaction can set in motion a less than optimal attachment relationship and compromise the infants emotional resilience
• Now good evidence from various, independent research groups that maternal sensitivity and also intrusiveness/remoteness predicts attachment security
o More sensitive= greater security
o More intrusive/remote= greater insecurity
94
What paradigm models maternal depression?
Still face
95
How many people does protracted maternal depression affect?
• Protracted maternal depression affects about 15-20% of people
96
From birth to 9 months, what is the importance of communication with children?
* Human babies come into the world with a need for companionship
* Need not merely for food and protection, also forum in which the infant/child becomes able to regulate and manage him/herself
* Forum in which the infant/child becomes a communicator- a critical human skill
* Significant interruptions to these normal processes can have long term effects on child developmental outcomes
97
When does stranger wariness/anxiety develop in infants and what concept does it relate to?
```
o Sroufe (1977) found that stranger wariness occurs develops from 8-10 months old
o Related to the concept of object permanence- parent has gone but what for?
```
98
Is stranger wariness/anxiety related to fear?
o SW does not include strong fear reactions
| o Combination of more subtle aspects of fear, and active avoidance of the stranger
99
Why is it important to only find security with 1 attachment figure?
• Important to only find security with an attachment figure because:
o No risk of harm from conspecifics
o Reliable source of comfort and safety
o Distress at separation (and comfort on reunion) increases the bond
Makes caregiver more protective and feel more important
100
What is empathy (according to Eisenberg)?
an affective response that stems from the apprehension or comprehension of another’s emotional state or condition, and that is identical or very similar to what the other person is feeling or would be expected to feel
101
What is a requirement for empathy (Eisenberg)?
o To feel empathy requires at least some differentiation of one’s own and another’s emotional state or condition
102
What is emotion contagion?
Feelings of others spread to yourself
103
What is sympathy?
an affective response that consists of feeling sorrow or concern for the distressed or needy other
o Involves other-oriented altruistic motivations and probably originates with empathic responding in many situations
104
What is personal distress?
self-focused, aversive emotional reaction to another person’s demotion or condition (e.g. discomfort, anxiety)- not thinking about other person
o Also probably stems from empathic responding but involves an egoistic motivation to alleviate one’s own distress rather than the other’s
105
What is Hoffman's empathy?
vicarious affective response that is more appropriate to someone else’s situation than to one’s own
o Adults know that their arousal is due to a stimulus event that is impinging on someone else, and they have some idea of what the other person is feeling
o Young children who lack the distinction between self and other may be empathically aroused without these cognitions
o How people experience empathy depends on how they cognize others
106
What is the empathy level of 10-12 months?
- Children often unresponsive to distress or watching
| - about 50% of the time, show some distress themselves (frown, look sad or cry)
107
What is the empathy level of 1-2 years?
Egocentric empathy
--Proper understanding of self-other distinction but,
--Poor understanding of idiosyncratic inner-states
Development:
--Fewer signs of personal distress
--Active interventions increase
----Approach and touch person in distress
----From about 18 months: bringing objects to distressed person, seeking help for or protecting the distressed person
108
What is the empathy level from 2 years old
Development:
- Children often respond to distress, regardless of their role in creating it
- There are considerable individual differences (different socio-emotional maturities)
109
What is the empathy level of 3 years old
Empathy for another’s feelings
- -Children understand that others’ feelings differ from their own
- -Better able to make empathic overtures
110
What is the empathy level of over 5 years?
Empathy for another’s general plight
- -Emergent concept of person as continuous; having separate histories and identities
- -Life condition of others informs children’s actions
- -Link with theory of mind
111
How do you test empathy in an infant?
```
• You want to test the infant’s
o Affective/emotional response
o Behavioural response (bringing a toy…)
Have to make sure child is mobile
• Need a scenario using:
o Real life
o Actors
o Puppets
• Code the responses by:
o Empathy/sympathy/personal distress
o Scale of response
```
112
What kind of methods do you use to test empathy?
* Physiological measures of distress responses are complex, but they generally show that young children experience HR changes (acceleration or deceleration depending on the context) and increased skin conductance when viewing someone else in distress: whether they know them or not
* Observational data-such as facial expression- also tells us that children are sensitive to distress in others and there is reasonable continuity between observational and physiological measures
* Relation between physiological and observational measures
113
Does extent of physiological arousal have an influence on subsequent responding?
Yes-
• Eisenberg and colleagues have postulated that the extent of physiological arousal has an influence on subsequent responding:
o Empathy:
A person with well-modulated arousal can be prone to to sympathetic responses to others
A person with poorly modulated over arousal (over aroused physiological responses) can be prone to personal distress- no sympathy
114
How do children learn how to be empathic?
By watching their role models
115
What happens to empathy as children grow up?
* From very young age, children experience empathic responses to other’s distress
* As children become more sophisticated, so do their interventions to alleviate other’s distress (and to hurt them)
* Children do not intervene all the time when others are distressed, but they are capable of great sensitivity
* Just as the ability to comfort increases, so does the capacity to hurt others: suggesting that cognitive underpinnings of empathic responding are more generally applicable to children’s socio-cognitive understanding and regulation
116
What is the emotion elicitation paradigm (Fink, 2011) and what were its results?
• Children viewed short videos of emotionally evocative events, including
o Crying infant- sustained crying (1 min)
o Exclusion- young child looking for a friend to play with (2 mins)
o First day- child shows intense distress at school (2 mins)
Got the most responses
o Fear- clip from the movie Annie, young child showing feat at being chased (2 mins)
• Record affective responses to others distress or suffering
• Using children’s facial expression from the First Day vignette, classified into:
o Unexpressive- no instance of any expression (most kids)
o Concern and worry- more personal distress emotion
o Sad
• Heart rates generally follow same pattern as facial expressions
• Well-regulated children (inexpressive) are more socially capable in the classroom
• Children who disengaged (look away- show personal distress) from the challenging vignettes most, and expressed worry-concern as opposed to empathic sadness, were more likely to be rated by their teachers as less socially mature and as having higher levels of problem behaviours
117
Describe Vaish et al's study on empathy in the absence of emotional input
o Participants
32 18 month olds and 32 2 year olds
o Materials
E1- the victim
E2- the perpetrator
Some colourful necklaces and belts
Art materials
o Procedure
Phase I: Child watches E1 admiring her belt/necklace/art creation
• Don’t interact with other objects to emphasise that object is special
Phase II child watches E2 destroy objects: Harm (E1’s objects) or Neutral (random objects)
• Experimenter is completely neutral- no facial expression
Phase II: E1 and child are playing with balloons- E1 loses hers… what will child do?
• Something bad happens to E1- prosocial children should share
• Nothing bad happens to E1- less motivation to share
Children with harm condition showed more concern/worry for the E1 and shared more
118
What happens in terms of SCU as children get older?
• As children get older:
o Their capacity to employ and accept psychological explanations of human behaviour, and to predict behaviour on psychological grounds, become increasingly sophisticated
o The ability to explore and manipulate mental concepts emerges gradually; such an explicit capacity lags well behind an implicit (automatic) understanding of the intentional nature of human behaviour
o In sum, children’s understanding of persons becomes more elaborate and flexible, increasingly taking in and coordinating aspects of mental life
o SCU is a measure of this development
• SCU is:
119
What does SCU include?
- False belief understanding
- Theory of mind comprehension
- Emotional understanding
120
What did Premack and Woodruff, as well as Wimmer and Perner's investigation into false belief involve and garner?
Premack and Woodruff, Wimmer and Perner
• Sally Anne task in which Sally leaves her ball in a basket and goes away. While she is away, the ball is moved by Anne into a box and the child is simply asked: Where will Sally look for her ball?
o 2-4 years old: Sally will look where the ball is (the box)
o 4 years old: Sally will look where the ball was left (in the basket)
From about 4 years, children are able to understand that people’s actions are linked to their beliefs, even when they are false
121
Is False belief robust and universal?
Yes
122
Describe the false belief non-verbal task and its conclusion
Non-verbal FB task (Woolfe, Want and Siegal)
• Effect even holds when purely pictorial representations of events are employed
• Boy goes fishing- audience knows he catches the boot but is expecting fish: therefore should point to fish picture as this is the false belief
• Effect holds even when pictorial representations of events are employed
123
Does false belief acquirement act like an on-off switch?
No
• However, children refer spontaneously to FB before they pass FB tasks/tests
• Also, between 3 ½ and 5 years of age, there are considerable
o Inter-individual and intra-individual differences in children’s performance
• Children do not go from reliably failing to reliably passing FB in one swift movement: mastery takes time and task factors are significant
• False belief comes on gradually
124
What is the importance of false-belief?
* Represents a fundamental shift in (meta-) representational thought
* Involved in so many other psychological insights (structural change)
* Arguably human specific
125
Which group has difficulty with the false belief concept?
• Autistic children have particular difficulty with false belief
o Takes them longer
126
What is needed for acquirement of false belief?
• Need to be able to think separately about the real state of the world and the represented (belief) state of the world
o Need to want to know about real state of the world to understand this
• Realisation of the self and other
o 18 months of life-aware of their body and self
o Recognition of mirror body- about 2 years old
• Representation of mental states
o Manipulation of representation
127
Is false belief recognisable in infants? If measured how is this done?
• There is now a growing body of research which argues that infants can appreciate other people’s FBs
• Habituation paradigms (visual attention), anticipatory looking paradigms and behavioural enactment paradigms all suggest, non-verbally, that infants might understand FB
• There is not compelling evidence yet though
• Many babies don’t understand false beliefs but understand what to expect from people
o Csibra and Gergely have argued that human beings are specifically able to communicate/transmit generic knowledge
o Understanding that people act with intention
• Alternative argument- automatic pathways (implicit) vs cognitive effort (explicit)
o Automatic systems prepare us for what we need to learn- FB could have automatic system and trigger attention, and then learn from this violated expectation
• Perharps babies do understand FB, but can’t use information outside of the immediate (temporally-bound) context
o They may have embodied an intuitive understanding of FB but not a representational understanding of belief
128
Describe the implicit pathway
```
Fast
Evolutionary advantage
Adaptive
Subcortica
Innately social
```
129
Describe the explicit pathway
```
Depletes resources
More flexible
Acquired
Cortical pathways
Slow
```
130
Describe Onishi's and Ballargeon's watermelon study
Onishi and Ballargeon- Do infants understand FBs?
• Familiarisation phase-
o All infants see C put watermelon in green box
o All infants see C put hand in green box as if reaching for watermelon
o C has a visor so they can’t see her eyes and look where she’s looking
o Screen up-C can’t see what’s going on with the boxes
o Screen down-C can see what’s going on with the box
• 6-9 month old infants divided into 4 groups:
o True belief green
o True belief yellow
o False belief green
o False belief yellow
• True belief condition-
o C places watermelon in a box, wall comes up, nothing happens, and experimenter puts her hand in green or yellow box
o Look at how long does the infant stare at the box C puts her hand into
o Longer they look, the more surprised the infant is
o Infant should be more surprised If C puts hand in opposite box of where watermelon is
• False belief condition
o C plays watermelon in box, screen comes up and watermelon moves into another box
o If infant has a proper understanding of FB, they should be surprised (longer staring time) if puts hand in box where watermelon has been moved, not where C has put it
• Results:
o Results of infant looking times confirm predictions
o They look like they have an understanding of false belief
o Problematic because don’t have an understanding of self and don’t understand empathy
131
How has theory of mind comprehension definition evolved?
A ToM was once what a child was supposed to have when they could pass a FB task
A definition of ToM based solely on FB is now generally considered too narrow
The dominant conceptualisation of ToM now takes in many more aspects of understanding mind that FB, although FB is still considered of disproportionate importance
In fact, there are many domains of mental state understanding (concepts) that children need to master in development (and which contribute to their SCU)
132
What are the six domains of theory of mind?
• Diverse desires
• Diverse beliefs
o Different beliefs from the ones that the subject holds
• Knowledge access
o People have different knowledge from you due to different perception
o Basically like egocentricity
• False belief
• Belief-based emotion (EU)
o Feel something based on what you believe to be true
• Real versus apparent emotion (EU)
o Manipulation (pretend emotion)
133
What is emotion understanding?
Recognizing and producing emotional expressions
Understanding emotion relations (no real expressive element)
Understanding complex emotional situations and concomitant displays
134
What are proposed predictors and their respective proposed outcomes for child and social influences on socio-cognitive understanding?
```
• Proposed predictors:
o Environmental
Attachment
Mind-mindedness and reflective function
Family, emotional expressivity
Family/social structure
Conversational environment
o Child internal factors
Earlier SCU
Linguistic competence
• Proposed outcomes
o Prosocial behaviours
o Popularity with peers
o Aggression and conduct problems
o Educational outcomes
```
135
What is the role of linguistic competence to theory of mind and false belief?
• Over 40 independent research groups have found that children’s linguistic competence is linked to their Theory of Mind (including false belief and emotion understanding), both concurrently and longitudinally
• However, there is not consensus on which aspects of linguistic competence are most important and relatively few studies have compared different aspects of linguistic competence directly
• Milligan et al.
o Conducted a meta-analysis of 104 studies examining the association between children’s competence and their false-belief (FB) understanding. Only one study found a negative association between linguistic competence and FB understanding
136
What are aspects of conversational input and maternal conversational style which have been identified as likely candidates for environmental boosters of children's SCU?
o Internal-state language
o Emotionally elaborated discourse
o Mental-state discourse
o Mind-mindedness
o Causally coherent psychological discourse
o Connected discourse
o Children’s linguistic competence and their conversational environments BOTH contribute to SCU, and they seem to be largely independent in their contributions (although one affects the other)
137
Describe aspects of mind-mindedness?
The caregiver’s proclivity to treat his/her infant or child as an intentional agent, with his/her own mental states (beliefs, desires…)
Mind-minded mothers use more mental state discourse even when playing with their infant or describing their child (Meins et al.)
When mothers (and siblings) are more mind-minded with their infants (i.e. talk with their infants in a way that presumes their infants have their own psychological perspective), those infants grow up to be children who reach SCU milestones earlier
138
Describe mental-state discourse?
Certain verbs are unambiguously mental in that they convey mental attitudes: ‘to think’; ‘to believe’ etc
Certain mental conditions are ambiguous. Usually a behavioural and mental interpretation are warranted when emotion terms are used (are they feeling or behaving scared…)
Sometimes mothers actually articulate the thoughts of a protagonist of their child (‘that looks interesting’ said from the view of their child)
Accentuate that other people think/feel different from the child
Mothers (and siblings) who do more of this kind of discourse have children who reach SCU milestones earlier
139
What is the basis of abnormal development diagnosis?
• Diagnosis based on the premise that development is predictable
o Abnormal that order of milestones have been mixed
• Milestones are based on age ranges considered normal (which can be very large)
o Children are compared by age- Age comparisons can be changed dur to premature birth of children (although the same is not done for late birth)
o Age adjusted- When age ranges adjusted for birth timing e.g. 6 weeks premature means an extra 6 months is given
140
When is a child abnormally developing?
* If 1 SD below the mean of the normal curve, considered in the abnormal range
* If 2 SDs above the mean of the normal curve, considered in the abnormal (gifted) range
141
What is the problem of giftedness and what are the problems associated with giftedness, as well as a suggested solution?
o 150+ IQ= problem of giftedness (IQ in the top 2%)
Difficulties fitting in with peers (different interests/ levels)
Often prefer the company of older children/adults
Schools may not be able to cater for their needs
• What constitutes as a gifted and talented program may have different entry criteria/ expectations per school
Frustration and disruptive behaviours
Isolation and loneliness
Often independent from emotional maturity
Labelling of the child can lead to pressure to exceed or fear of failure
o Schools recommend grades should be skipped for these children, but sometimes emotional maturity not on par with intelligence maturity
142
Why does abnormal development usually focus on deficiencies?
• Abnormal development generally focuses on deficits because:
o Early intervention leads to a better outcome
o Early detection
o Diagnosis
o Early problems can lead to other problems (cascade)
143
Which develops faster? Receptive or expressive language?
Receptive
144
What are symptoms of abnormal receptive language development?
- Difficulty understanding the meaning of words
- Difficulty understanding what is said (comprehension)
- Not answering questions appropriately
- Not following instructions
- Not seeming to listen
- Disinterest in story books
145
What are symptoms of abnormal expressive language development?
- Slower
- Difficulty putting words and sentences together to express thoughts/ideas
- Reduced vocabulary
- Grammatical errors
- Difficulty finding the right word
- Inability to engage in a -conversation
- Difficulties with written expression (older children)
- Produces short, non-complex sentences below expectations for child’s age
146
What is treatment of abnormal receptive language development?
- Speech therapy
- Classroom assistance
- Information for families to increase language use at home
- Psychological treatment (if accompanied by behavioural/cognitive problems
147
What is treatment of abnormal expressive language development?
- Early identification
- Speech pathology
- Special education assistance
148
What are common causes of abnormal receptive language development?
- Global developmental delay
- Insufficient exposure to language
- Attention disorders
- Hearing impairment (e.g. partial deafness, chronic ear infections)
- Vision impairment (absence of facial cues and gestures to guide understanding)
149
What are common causes of abnormal expressive language development?
- Other developmental disorders
- Head trauma
- Unknown-can be familial
150
What are internal and external consequences of abnormal receptive language development for the child?
- Apparent misbehaviour
- Not following instructions
- Patterns of behaviour problems
- Difficulty engaging in structured activities
- Disinterest in literacy
- Falling behind academically
151
What are internal and external consequences of abnormal expressive language development for the child?
- Frustration
- Temper tantrums
- Difficult behaviours
- Parent attributions
- Difficult child
- Behaviour problems
- Peer problems
- Bullying
- Feelings of inferiority
- Self esteem
- Under-achievement
- Academic failure
152
What is neglect?
A deficit in meeting a child’s basic needs, including the failure to provide adequate health care, supervision, clothing, nutrition, housing as well as their physical, emotional, social, educational and safety needs. Harm to a child may or may not be the intended consequence
153
What classifies as mild-moderate neglect?
o Dressed in shorts in winter
o Inappropriate diet
o No guidance for dental hygiene
o Failure to attend health checks/immunisations
o Failure to attend school or to home school sufficiently
o Failure to provide sufficient stimulation
154
What classifies as severe neglect?
o Neglect of child’s biological needs
| o When baby not attended to, sign of danger to baby so stress system activates
155
What are causes of neglect?
```
o Poor parenting skills/life skills
o Developmental delay in parents
o Drug dependency/psychopathology
o Low income/money struggles
o Lack of care for child- act of omission
```
156
What are 4 types of unersponsiveness?
```
o Occasional inattention
Child can learn to self-soothe
o Chronic under-stimulation
Less interactions with adults around them
o Severe neglect via a family context
Prolonged periods of inattention
Basic needs not met
o Severe neglect in an institutional setting
Orphanages
Transitional/temporary care
New people every 2 seconds
```
157
Why do we research abnormal development?
* Fix problems when they come up
| * Development means that there is often a rapid change in skill
158
What are considerations we need to consider when researching abnormal development?
o Research funding
o Sample size needed
o Length of time given to do research
159
What is a longitudinal study and advantages/disadvantages?
o Researchers conduct several observations of the same subjects over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years
o Advantage:
Researchers are able to detect developments or changes in the characteristics of the target population at both the group and the individual level
160
What is cross-sectional design and its advantages/disadvantages?
o Compares different population groups at a single point in time
o Advantages
Allows researchers to compare many different variables at the same time
o Disadvantage:
Does not provide definite information about cause-and-effect relationships
161
What is cohort-sequential design?
o Smaller time window to study multiple individuals of different starting ages
162
What would you do to rsearch gross motor skill development between 3 months and 3 years if you had loads of money and time?
Longitudinal study- same children, assessed multiple times over a number of years
Dependent variables: Gross motor abilities. Percentage of children of a given age demonstrating an ability
• Operationalised: Assessment by a trained/qualified research assistant
Independent variable: Age (within subjects, repeated measures)
• Operationalised: Child age in years, months and days
Covariates- What else might influence the child- Quality of environment? Diet?
Exclusion criteria- Disability? Birth trauma? Maltreatment? Bigger the sample size, less exclusion
Sample size- depends on exclusion criteria, expected effect size and exact research question… and funding!
163
What would you do to rsearch gross motor skill development between 3 months and 3 years if you had no money and time?
Cross-sectional design-Different children of different ages, each assessed once
• Differences in development between groups
• Rough age groupings
• Changes between stages cannot be determined
Dependent variables- Gross motor abilities. Percentage of children of a given age demonstrating an ability
• Parent asked to complete report on their child. Or interviewed by student
Independent variable- Age (between-subjects, groups)
• Operationalised- Child age in years, months and days
Covariates- Investigate one specifically
Exclusion criteria- Have to exclude a lot with small sample size
Sample size- Equal groups sizes- enough required in each group
164
What would you do to rsearch gross motor skill development between 3 months and 3 years if you had some money and time?
Cohort-sequential design-Different children of different ages, each assessed multiple times
Measurements every 3 months
3 groups of children aged 0 months, 12 months and 24 months
1 year would cover the whole age range
2 years would add in cross-sectional element
165
How would you test the effectiveness of a new program? (developmental)
o Control group- Waitlist (without treatment) or alternative treatment (with another treatment you’re comparing your new program to)
Waitlist
• Cheaper
• Quicker
• More accessible
o Has to be randomly assigned and assessed during same time period
166
What are two currently pressing topics in developmental psychology?
- Childhood obesity
| - Technological advances
167
What is BMI?
o BMI= weight (kg)/height(m)
168
How is BMI defined for adults?
```
o For adults- definition
BMI is less than 18.5= underweight
BMI is 18.5 to <25= normal
BMI is 25 to <30= overweight
BMI is 30 or higher= obese
```
169
How is BMI defined for children?
o For children-
Overweight
• BMI at or above the 85th percentile and below the 95th percentile for children and teens of the same age and sex
• BMI at or above the 95th percentile for children and teens of the same age and sex
BMI uses worldwide norms for children
170
What do you have to control for in BMI?
o Have to control for age and sex, as well as muscle (especially for teenage boys)
171
Is obesity evenly spread?
• Differential disease- unevenly distributed in the population
172
Is childhood obesity increasing?
• Increase of overweight children in 1994-2000, but staying mildly constant now
173
Is childhood obesity more prevalent in city or country? Why?
• Childhood obesity is less prevalent in big cities than in country towns
• The physical environment of your area is a genuine risk factor for childhood obesity
o High SES areas have least obesity rates
174
Are technological advances related to childhood obesity?
• Increase in time spent on screens is a significant factor in the recent increase in childhood obesity
175
What is the link between fast food and obesity?
• Fast food is sometimes cheaper than home cooked meals
o Calories take priority over nutrients
o More calories for a lower price in fast food
o Organic produce can be expensive
o Distribution of fast food outlets varies according to SES-
The more unhealthy fast food outlets near schools, the higher the obesity risk (and these are higher in low SES areas)
176
What are psychological risk outcomes associated with childhood obesity?
```
Low self esteem
Sloppy
Linked to poverty
Bullying
Eating disorders
Depression
Earn less money than slimmer co-workers
Lazy
```
177
What are causes of childhood obesity?
o Food advertising aimed at children
o Large portion size
o Over consumption of sugar sweetened beverages
o Declines in overall physical activity, both before and after school hours
o Decreased physical education and recess time at school
o Increased frequency of eating away from home
o Community environments that inhibit active living
o Increased screen time
o Increased availability of low-cost, high calorie, refined grains and added sugars
o Hormonal/endocrine conditions
o Medication use
o Genetics
o Psychological factors which can both be a result and the cause
178
Why is treatment of childhood obesity difficult?
Poorer executive functions
Less impulse control
Poorer understanding of nutrition and health
Dependent on caregiver for diet and exercise opportunities
Actual behaviour change is hard
179
What is the most effective treatment for childhood obesity and what are barriers to it?
```
o Most effective treatment comes from the family as whole, but significant barriers include:
Time
Poverty
Opportunity for exercise
Environment for exercise
Lifestyle skills
Stress
```
180
Why are technological advances important issue in development?
```
• Important issue because:
o Concerns over infant development
o Obesity concerns
o Impact on developmental milestones
o Society has changed-less extended family/social support
o Screens are part of our culture
o Parental guilt
```
181
What are current recommendations in terms of technology for children?
o Ban for screens under 2s lifted
But should involve adult interaction
o All video chatting allowed at any age
o No screens at mealtimes or 1 hour before bed
Screens at mealtimes increase amount of food eaten
o Differentiates between video chatting, information gathering/learning and entertainment
o Emphasises importance of parent/ family engagement with the media content
182
What are consequences of excessive screen time?
o Sleep problems
o Sedentary behaviour
o Limited awake time in toddlerhood to gain skills
183
What are predictors for screen time abuse in children?
o Parent mental health
Parent depression linked to increased infant sleep time
o Parent TV viewing time
o Indication of some family dysfunction/stress
184
What are advantages of E-learning?
```
Massive potential
• Change the face of learning
• Interactive/visual/multimedia/self-assessment
• Shared knowledge/social interaction
More flexibility in learning
• Individual pace
• Self-selected topics
• Greater potential range of subjects
Great reach
• Anyone with access to the internet
• Free
• Qualifications
• Evens out social advantage/disadvantage
o Enables children’s potential to learn
```
185
What are disadvantages of E-learning?
Motivational problems- need motivation to do it
Sources
• Quality
• Reliability
• Political/social agendas
• Not all sources are accurate and unbiased: how will child separate false from real
Comparative curriculum
Working with others
Ability to sit through formal education (self-control, concentration)
Lack of error correction
• Problem with passive learning when we think we know the correct answer already
186
How do adults use social media in comparison to children?
Adults:
• Boredom, distraction, hobbies, keeping in touch with friends, organizing events, long distance contact, career, self-promotion
Children
• Don’t know- different rules and expectations
187
What are potential problems of social media?
```
Social pressure
• To conform
• Unavoidable
• Online bullying
o Perpetual
o Wide audience- social networks
• Overemphasis on image and self-image
o Self-reflection vs mass judgement
o Narcissism
• Obsession/worry
• Addiction
Different form of social communication
• Faster (instant)
• Temporary (changing too fast)
• Global
```
