Development of Brain and Behavior (kapitel 7).

Question 1

What is a Zygote?

Help: It is not some kind of Alien

Answer 1

It’s the fertilized egg.

Question 2

Within a week, the zygote has become an embryo, that shows three distinct layers. Can you name them?

Answer 2

1. The outer layer, called the ectoderm (Derma = skin)
2. Mesoderm
3. Endoderm

Question 3

Close to the ectoderm, the cell division at the head end starts forming the neural groove. Then the ridges come together to form X that becomes the future forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. What is X?

Answer 3

X is the neural tube. (p. 186).

See p. 188 for how it develops

Question 4

With chapter 2 in mind, what is the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain also called?

Answer 4

Forebrain: Prosencephalon
Midbrain: Mesencephalon
Hindbrain: Rhombencephalon

Question 5

What is meant, by the process neurogenesis?

Answer 5

The mitotic division of non-neuronal cells to produce neurons.

Question 6

Which zone is described as:” .. Also called ependymal layer. A region lining the cerebral ventricles that displays mitosis, providing neurons early in development and glial cells throughout life” ?

Answer 6

The Ventricular Zone. (p. 187).

Question 7

What is meant by the process ‘cell-cell interactions’?

Answer 7

It is the general process during development in which one cell affects the differentiation of other, usually neighboring, cells. (It as an example, on how vertebrate development is less hardwired and more susceptible to being shaped by environmental signals)

Question 8

What is the difference between neurogenesis and adult neurogenesis?

Answer 8

There is none. The generation of new neurons also happens in adulthood.

Question 9

What is meant by cell migration?

Answer 9

The movement of cells from site of origin to final location.

Question 10

What is the function of radial glial cells? How do cells ‘use’ them?

Answer 10

These radial glial cells form early in development, spanning the width of the emerging cerebral hemisphere, and guide migrating neurons. (My own metaphor; Radial glial cells are like neuronal climbing ropes, spanning from the inner to the outer layer).

Question 11

What is a ‘cell adhesion molecule’?

Answer 11

A protein found on the surface of a cell that guides cell migration and/or axonal pathfinding. (for a precise drawing see lower right corner of p. 191).

Question 12

Compare ‘retrograde degeneration’ with ‘anterograde degeneration’.

Answer 12

Retrograde degeneration, is destruction of the nerve cell body following injury to its axon, whereas anterograde degeneration, is the loss of the distal (towards the periphery) portion of an axon resulting from injury to the axon.

Question 13

What characterizes a stem cell?

Answer 13

It is a cell that is undifferentiated and therefore can take on the fate of any cell that a doner organism can produce.

Question 14

Now knowing what, neurogenesis is, you might also know what synaptogenesis is?

Answer 14

..It is the establishment of synaptic connections as axons and dendrites grow.

Question 15

As always, time for a different question: On the 11th of november 2016, Peter had to leave a game at ‘spilcafeen’ early, because he had to drive home and make dinner. What was he planing on making, on this particular day?

Answer 15

He was making a ‘Kødgryde’.

Question 16

A growth cone is?

Answer 16

The growing tip of an axon or a dendrite.

Question 17

A filopodia, which has someting to do with the ‘growth cone’ is?

Answer 17

Very fine, tubular outgrowths from the growth cone.

Question 18

Apoptosis simply means?

Answer 18

The process by which ‘surplus’ cells die (p. 194).

Question 19

‘Caspases’ is?

Answer 19

A family of proteins that regulate cell death (apoptosis).

Question 20

So, inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) is?

Bonus; can you name a specific family of proteins that inhibit apoptosis?

Answer 20

A family of proteins that inhibit caspases and thereby stave off apoptosis.

(bonus answar: Bcl-2). (p. 194 - 195).

Question 21

In this context, what is meant by Diablo proteins?

Answer 21

It is a protein released by mitochondria, in response to high calsium levels, that activates apoptosis.

Question 22

Explain the difference between chemoattractants and chemorepellents?

Answer 22

Chemoattractants are compounds that attract particular classes of growth cones, whereas chemorepellents are the opposite. (p. 194).

Question 23

What is a neurotrophic factor?

Answer 23

It is also called a trophic factor, and is a target-derived chemical that acts as if it ‘feeds’ certain neurons to help them survive.

Question 24

(NGF) - Nerve growth factor - is?

Answer 24

A substance that markedly affects the growth of neurons in spinal ganglia and in the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system. (p. 196).

Question 25

Perhaps knowing what a neurotrophic factor is, you might also know what a neurotropin is?

Answer 25

It is a chemical that prevents neurons from dying.

Question 26

What happens in the process of ‘synapse rearrangement’? (the term itself, gives a lot away)

Answer 26

.. It is also called synaptic remodeling. It is the loss of some synapses and the development of others; a refinement process, in other words. (Especially vivid in the developmental stage).

Question 27

Multiple sclerosis is a disorder, in which.. ?

Answer 27

.. Myelin is destroyed by the person’s own immune system in random distinct patches.

Question 28

Again, with chapter 2 in mind, which to kinds of glial cells, helps with myelination? (one is the body, the other in the brain).

Answer 28

Schwann is in the body (the peripheral nerves system), oligodendrocytes in the brain and spinal cord (the central nerves system).

Question 29

Decribe what characterizes autism.

Answer 29

It’s a disorder arising during childhood, characterized by social withdrawal and perseverative (tilbagevendende, gentagende) behavior.

Question 30

Decribe what characterizes Asperger’s syndrome.

Answer 30

Aspergers syndrone, also sometimes called high functioning autism. A syndrome characterized by difficulties in social cognitive processing; usually accompanied by strong language skills.

Question 31

Explain (and maybe compare) the two terms ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’.

Answer 31

Genotype is all the genetic information that one specific individual had inherited, whereas phenotype is the sum of an individuals physical characteristics at one particular time. (p. 204).

Question 32

Where does mutation occur?

Answer 32

In the nucleotide sequence of a gene as a result of unfaithful replication. (p. 204).

Question 33

What has caused ‘fragile x syndrome’ to be called fragile x syndrome? And how does the syndrome effekt the person hos has it.

Answer 33

Fragile x syndrome is produced by a fragile site on the X chromosome that seems prone to breaking because the DNA there is unstable. This, leading to inherited intellectual disability.

Question 34

What is the ‘epigenetics’ the study of?

Answer 34

Epigenetics is the study of factors that affekt gene expression(!) without making any changes in the nucleotide sequence of the genes themselves. (example include Jesper Morgensens ‘good mother rat thing’.).

Question 35

What is ‘methylation’?

Answer 35

It is a chemical modification of DNA that does not effekt the nucleotide sequence of a gene but makes the gene less likely to be expressed. (This way, (like with epigenetics) experience at one time in life, may affect gene expression later). (p. 208).

Question 36

What is meant by binocular deprivation? (as oppose to monocular deprivation.)

Answer 36

It is when depriving both eyes of form vision, as by sealing the eyelids.

Question 37

What is a hebbian synapse?

Answer 37

Its a synapse that is strengthened when it successfully drives the postsynaptic cell. (p. 210).

Question 38

What is senile plaques?

Bonus point; can you also name a specific protein which is related?

Answer 38

Senile plaques, also called amyloid plaques, are small areas of the brain that have abnormal cellular and chemical patterns. Senile plaques correlate with senile dementia.

• A protein connected to this is the beta-amyloid.

Question 39

X accumulates in the brain of people with Alzheimer’s and of elderly people with cognitive impairment more than in the brains of controls. What protein is X?

Answer 39

Beta-amyloids. (p. 215).

Question 40

Can you describe what typically leads to dementia?

Answer 40

Answar on p. 216. If wrong, try again and explain via figure 7.28.

Question 41

Sidste spørgsmål; Hvad bar Stefan Eilers i hænderne, da han kom 10 min for sent efter pausen, mandag den 14. november?

Answer 41

Hjemmelavet quiche.