Developmental psychology - Semester 2 Flashcards

Question

What does emotional development involve?

Answer 1

The development of expressing, understanding, and controlling emotions

Answer 2

Does your early relationship with your primary caregiver(s) affect later relationships?

Answer 3

The development of social behaviour and understanding of the social world

Answer 4

Growth and change across multiple domains

Answer 5

* Zygote stage (0-2 weeks) * Embryonic stage (3-8 weeks) * Fetus (9-38 weeks) ## Footnote Each stage has distinct characteristics and developmental milestones.

Answer 6

Ovum and sperm fuse to form a zygote ## Footnote This marks the beginning of prenatal development.

Answer 7

Zygote is down the fallopian tube and cells divide to form a sphere ## Footnote This is part of the early development process.

Answer 8

At the end of implantation ## Footnote This stage lasts until the 8th week of development.

Answer 9

Period of intense vulnerability ## Footnote The embryo is highly vulnerable to outside influences such as disease and drugs.

Answer 10

Neural tube begins to form ## Footnote This is crucial for brain development.

Answer 11

Heart becomes visible ## Footnote Blood vessels and lungs begin to develop during this week.

Answer 12

* All major organs present (except sex organs) * Basic structures of brain and central nervous system established * Very light (around 40g) ## Footnote This marks the end of the embryonic stage.

Answer 13

Lasts 32 weeks ## Footnote This stage is focused on the continued development of organs.

Answer 14

Around 23-24 weeks ## Footnote This is when the fetus can potentially survive outside the womb.

Answer 15

* Moving limbs * Head movements * Swallowing * Breathing * Hiccupping ## Footnote These behaviors indicate the fetus is developing motor skills.

Answer 16

Foreign agents that can cause abnormalities in the fetus and embryo ## Footnote Teratogens can include drugs, diseases, and environmental factors.

Answer 17

* Heroin * Cocaine * LSD * Methamphetamines ## Footnote These substances can have harmful effects on fetal development.

Answer 18

* Growth restriction * Irritability * Withdrawal symptoms * Lower birth weight * Increase in hyperactivity disorders ## Footnote Cocaine reduces blood flow to the placenta.

Answer 19

* Lower birth weight * Shrunken head circumference * Cognitive impairments ## Footnote Heroin passes into the fetus's bloodstream.

Answer 20

* Severe birth defects in limbs, eyes, heart, and brain * 50% mortality rate ## Footnote Thalidomide was historically given to mothers with morning sickness.

Answer 21

* Limb and facial malformations * Growth restriction * Poor coordination * Hyperactivity * Kidney defects * Vision/hearing issues * Delayed development in speech and social skills * Distinctive facial abnormalities ## Footnote 10% of children born to alcoholics have fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS).

Answer 22

* Deafness * Cataracts * Heart defects ## Footnote Rubella can enter through the placenta.

Answer 23

Around Week 8 post-conception ## Footnote This is when the fetus begins to have the ability to hear.

Answer 24

Fetus perceives sound outside the womb through fluid-filled ears ## Footnote They begin to learn vocal rhythms and patterns.

Answer 25

Mothers read Dr. Seuss books out loud while pregnant ## Footnote Newborns preferred listening to these books after birth.

Answer 26

Currently, no evidence supports this ## Footnote The amniotic fluid filters sound, limiting what the fetus can hear.

Answer 27

Infants prefer playback of mother’s voice to voices of other women ## Footnote This indicates early recognition and preference for maternal sounds.

Answer 28

Fetuses can experience taste through amniotic fluid ## Footnote Tastes pass into the amniotic fluid from the mother.

Answer 29

Infants exposed to carrot juice preferred carrot-flavored cereal ## Footnote This indicates that fetal taste exposure influences food preferences.

Answer 30

* Detect sweet, savoury, bitterness, sourness, and umami * Salt develops after 4 months ## Footnote Infants react negatively to sour tastes.

Answer 31

Infants experience slower heart rate when hearing mother’s voice ## Footnote This indicates a calming effect.

Answer 32

Week 7 ## Footnote This marks the beginning of visual development.

Answer 33

20/200 ## Footnote Normal adult vision is 20/20.

Answer 34

* Includes zygote, embryonic, and fetal stages * The embryo is particularly vulnerable to outside influences * Teratogens can cause abnormalities * Fetuses and neonates have sensory abilities ## Footnote This summarizes the main aspects of prenatal development.

Answer 35

Emotion: a psychological state characterized by subjective feelings, physiological arousal, expressive behaviours, and cognitive appraisal, influencing how individuals perceive and respond to their environment

Answer 36

Develops very early – within first 2 weeks. One of the earliest emotions to develop

Answer 37

 Indicates to others the infant has basic needs that are unmet

Answer 38

- Around 2-3 months – anger and sadness expression start to differentiate - Around 3 months – infant’s cries can be categorised

Answer 39

- Differentiations between expressions believed to be learned - Based on feedback from environment in meeting the infant’s needs

Answer 40

- Around 4 months – infants show wariness  Stranger wariness: distress in presence of unfamiliar adult  Involves signs of caution, hesitation, or distress in response to unfamiliar people or situations

Answer 41

 May serve as a protective mechanism to prevent harm or danger by prompting infants to approach unfamiliar stimuli with caution

Answer 42

An experiment to study fear in infants

Answer 43

Little Albert played with a white rat = not afraid A hammer makes a loud noise = afraid A hammer makes a loud noise while Little Albert is playing with white rate = afraid The whit rate alone (no noise)  afraid

Answer 44

- Infants can learn fear - Fear can be generalised in infants

Answer 45

- Ethical issues with this experiment - Learned about fear conditioning in general - Gained little about infant emotional development specifically

Answer 46

They also develop early

Answer 47

Early social bonding with community

Answer 48

- Around 4 weeks, infants smile. Often during sleep - This is considered a reflexive smile

Answer 49

 Infants is not intentionally smiling  Infant is not responding to a social situation - Infants begin developing smiles in trimester 3 of pregnancy  Exercising facial muscles

Answer 50

Around 6 weeks

Answer 51

 Smiling with eye contact or attempt to make eye contact - Refelcts the infant’s  Social awareness  Ability to engage in reciprocal interactions with caregivers

Answer 52

 Facilitates caregiver-infant attachment and promotes social bonding

Answer 53

Familiar people Understanding that they can influence something

Answer 54

ability to monitor, evaluate, and modulate one’s emotional responses

Answer 55

- Development begins in infancy but limited  Reliance on caregiver soothing  Continues to develop throughout childhood/adolescence

Answer 56

 Emerges gradually – requires motor skills and learning  E.g. sucking on thumb or cuddling with a blanket

Answer 57

 Foundation for emotional well-being and self-regulation

Answer 58

- Complex emotions are not typically seen in infants - E.g. guilt, jealousy, disappointment, pride, embarrassment - Requires further development in multiple domains - E.g. cognitive – self-awareness, social – other awareness

Answer 59

“Lasting psychological connectedness between human beings” (Bowlby, 1969, p194)

Answer 60

- Childs main drive is to feed - Mother source of food - Drive reduction

Answer 61

- Mother associated with food - ‘Cupboard Love’

Answer 62

- Tested hypothesis that food drive is basis of attachment - Rhesus monkeys raised by two mothers  Wire mother  Cloth mother - Half monkeys received food from wire mother - Hald from terry towelling mothers - Harlow found - Monkeys preferred cloth mother in both cases - When frightened monkeys ran to cloth mother - Comfort not food basis bond

Answer 63

- John Bowlby (1907 – 1990) - WWII Medic, Psychoanalyst, and active researcher - After WWII, commissioned by the World Health Organization to investigate the problem of orphaned infants

Answer 64

“What is believed to be essential for mental health is that the infant and young child should experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with his mother (or permanent mother-substitute) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment” (Bowlby, 1951/1971, p.12).

Answer 65

- Drive for “felt security” - The development of the “Secure Base” - Individual Differences in attachment - Biologically rooted

Answer 66

- Signalling behaviours  Crying  Smiling - Kewpie faces  Facial features commonly associated with infants  Large forehead, wide-spaced eyes, a small chin, and delicate facial features

Answer 67

the emotional bond formed between an infant and their primary caregiver(s), typically developing in the first year of life - Suggests that infants seek proximity to their caregivers for protection and comfort - Emphasises the importance of early relationships in shaping later social and emotional functioning

Answer 68

‘Social development changes over time in the child’s understanding of attitude to, and action with others’ (Hartup, 1991)

Answer 69

Focus on how individuals acquire new behaviours or knowledge through experience and practice

Answer 70

Focus on the influence of social interactions, observation, and modelling in learning and social development

Answer 71

- American psychologist interested in behaviourism - Conducted research on child rearing/animal behaviour, and advertising

Answer 72

'Little Albert' experiment ?

Answer 73

- Learning by reward and punishment (Skinner, 1971) - If you do an action & rewarded, more likely to do it in the future

Answer 74

- Attention as a reward - ‘Time-out’ - Importance of the schedules of reinforcement

Answer 75

- Not all learning can occur this way

Answer 76

- One of the most highly cited psychologists of all time - Influential in Social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality - Highly influential for the transition from behaviourism to cognitive psychology - Developed social learning theory (now called social cognitive theory)

Answer 77

- We don’t have to be directly rewarded, just observe it

Answer 78

Children learn by following models Bobo Doll

Answer 79

- Three groups of pre-school children watched 3 different films of aggressive acts 1. Actor rewarded for acts 2. Actor punished for acts 3. No consequences - Children then placed in room with Bobo doll - Observed to see what would happen

Answer 80

1. Actor rewarded for acts 2. Actor punished for acts 3. No consequences - Groups 1 and 3 produced most aggressive behaviours - Boys more than girls - All groups produced aggression if rewarded - Example of observational learning - Very influential on research, parenting, learning practices - Supports Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

Answer 81

- Ecological validity - Cumberbatch (1990) – novelty of the doll - Long term effects on children’s behaviour?

Answer 82

- Emphasis on observation of others - But also - Child is active in their own development - Can we focus on understanding how the child processes the information they encounter? - How do the children process information and problem solve?

Answer 83

- Evaluated social problem solving in children - Children interpret situations based on past experiences - Including home environment and peer relations

Answer 84

1. Encode a problematic event 2. Interpret the social cues involved in it 3. Formulate a goal to resolve the incident 4. Generate strategies to achieve the goal 5. Evaluate the likely success of potential strategies 6. Enact a behaviour - Measured responses to ambiguous situations

Answer 85

 Children tend to interpret ambiguous social cues as hostile or threatening, leading to aggressive responses

Answer 86

 When children consistently interpret social cues as hostile and respond aggressively, it reinforces their belief that others are hostile

Answer 87

- Expectations about behaviour patterns specific to each gender - Boys in blue, girls in pink - Boys interested in things, girls in feelings

Answer 88

Gender is purely biological (adaptive differences between sexes)

Answer 89

children understand gender as cognition develops. Gender identity becomes stable over time (Kohlberg, 1966)

Answer 90

Children learn gendered behaviours through observation, reward and punishment (Bandura, 1977)

Answer 91

- Investigated the influence of adult expectations on children's play behaviour. - Child dressed in gender neutral clothes - Adults conformed to stereotyped interactions more when they knew the gender - Adults' awareness of a child's gender influenced their behaviour and interactions - Highlights the role of social expectations in shaping children's experiences and opportunities for play.

Answer 92

- 125 picture books representing the work of 100 authors - Analysed: - The percentage of males or females represented in the titles, main characters, illustrations - Roles and activities of adults - Activities of children.

Answer 93

- 40% of the illustrations contained only male characters - 11 % contained only female characters

Answer 94

- Male characters depicted 81 different roles while female characters depicted only 17 different roles (e.g. caregiving roles for females)

Answer 95

- Females were listed as the main character 40% of the time and males in 39% of the titles analysed - Male characters depicted 25 roles, whereas female characters depicted 14 roles - “Although most of the women’s roles were traditional ones (mother, grandmother, washerwoman, etc.), they were finally seen as doctors, chefs, and even milk vendors.”

Answer 96

- Are boys more aggressive than girls? - Intentions  instrumental/hostile - Behaviours – physical – rough and tumble/ aggressive - Consequences Boys 3 times more likely to be directly aggressive than girls (Card et al., 2008, findings from 148 studies)

Answer 97

- Testosterone (Book et al., 2001) - Genetic influences (Ferguson, 2010)

Answer 98

- Physical aggression - Relational aggression (Archer, 2004) - Aims at damaging social status or relationships - Generally, more common in girls

Answer 99

- Societal demands - Different socialising patterns - Media influences (“Mean Girls”)

Answer 100

- Developmental psychology focuses on how people change throughout the lifespan ➢ What is the trajectory/history? ➢ Is this change continuous development, or is it in specific developmental stages? ➢ What causes the change?

Answer 101

- When does childhood end and adulthood begin? - Adolescence is a transitional stage between childhood and adulthood - Marked by physical, psychological, and social changes linked to puberty - Often associated with the teenage years, but development starts earlier and can continue into the 20s - The WHO definition: Ages 10-19, but this is a broad and debated range

Answer 102

- In some cultures, childhood ends with a clear rite of passage (e.g., bar/bat mitzvah, quinceañera, initiation rituals). - In Western societies, adolescence has lengthened due to prolonged education and delayed financial independence. - Some researchers suggest "emerging adulthood" (Arnett, 2000) is another division of development for ages 18-25, where identity exploration continues.

Answer 103

- Some define adolescents with the start of puberty - Puberty: a biological process that leads to physical and hormonal changes, preparing the body for sexual maturity and reproduction. Marked by:  Physical growth (height and weight) accelerates  Maturation of primary sex organs  Differentiation of secondary sex characteristics  Hormonal changes (females: oestrogen; males: testosterone) - Average onset : 8-14 in females, 9-15 in males (Blakemore et al., 2010, but large individual difference caused by genetic and environmental influences (Kauffman, 2010)

Answer 104

Both Gillick competency and Fraser guidelines refer to a legal case form the 1980s which looked at whether doctors should be able to give contraceptive advice or treatment to young people under 16-years-old without parental consent” – this is if they pass the Gillick competence test then they are able to receive this without competence - Based on a court case in 1986 - How does one assess “maturity” and “understanding of risks”?

Answer 105

- These are white matter tracts - General structures are present in babies - Continued development into adulthood - New studies  even as late as 35 years

Answer 106

- Individual brain cells are called ‘neurons and the gap between them are called ‘synapses’ - Signals are produced in the cell body (soma) and travel down the axon as electrical signals - These are converted to chemical signals (neurotransmitters) to pass over the synaptic gap

Answer 107

The junction between one neuron and another

Answer 108

Formation of new connections between neurons

Answer 109

Regulatory elimination of these connections

Answer 110

 Pruning in adolescence is distinct from neuronal loss in aging  It is based on learning and experiences  ‘Use it or lose it’ principle and makes brain more efficient at its chosen tasks

Answer 111

- Gray matter = cell bodies and unmyelinated axons  The areas that are doing the ‘thinking’

Answer 112

- White matter = myelinated axons  The cables connecting the different brain areas together

Answer 113

- Myelin is a fatty tissue which coats the outside of the axon - Provides insulation for the neurons and makes nerve impulses more efficient - Information travels around 100 times faster through a myelinated than an unmyelinated axon

Answer 114

- The first change after synaptic growth during fetal development is selective synaptic pruning - In adolescence, most pruning is taking place in the frontal lobes - Adolescents lose approximately 3% of gray matter in the frontal lobes

Answer 115

Frontal lobes

Answer 116

- Adolescents have a higher volume of white matter and a lower volume of grey matter compared to children.

Answer 117

- Synaptogenesis peaks in early childhood, while synaptic pruning continues into the 20s.

Answer 118

- The areas which control ‘executive functions’ (i.e. impulse control, planning) are among the last to mature and this can happen in the 20s

Answer 119

Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational

Answer 120

- Sensorimotor (0-2 years): object permanence and separation anxiety develop during this stage.

Answer 121

- Preoperational (2-6 years): child capable of symbolic thought and pretence but lacks ability to reason logically.

Answer 122

- Concrete operational (6-12 years): can reason logically about concrete objects and can thus begin to perform mathematical operations.

Answer 123

- Formal operational (12 years+): can reason logically about abstract concepts and can think in hypothetical terms.

Answer 124

- According to Piaget, the formal operational stage represents the shift from concrete to abstract and symbolic thought

Answer 125

 Third eye problem (‘if you had a third eye, where would you put it?’ A test of formal operational thought

Answer 126

 Pendulum problem (‘what governs the speed of a object swinging on a piece of string A test of formal operational thought

Answer 127

- Basic cognitive capacity is fully developed by mid-adolescence: e.g. processing speed and short-term memory span. - However, some cognitive functions continue to improve e.g. creativity, episodic long-term memory (use more efficient strategies, become better at inhibiting irrelevant information).

Answer 128

- Key executive functions include:  Planning ahead  Inhibitory control  Switching between tasks  Updating the working memory

Answer 129

- Inhibitory control improves across adolescence and into adulthood (Schel and Crone, 2013; Crone et al, 2018). - Helps control impulsive behaviour. - Slower to develop in more deprived communities.

Answer 130

- Working memory matures into adulthood. - Improvements result in quicker and better decision-making. - Working memory in adolescence may be boosted by mindfulness interventions (Quach et al., 2015) and music practice (Nutley et al., 2014).

Answer 131

- Longitudinal study of individuals aged 8- 22. - Completed working memory updating task and structural MRI twice, 2.5 years apart. - Findings: Improvement in memory updating associated with reduction in frontal lobe volume.

Answer 132

- Sleep is needed to support the neurobiological changes during adolescence - A critical period of development (Larsen & Luna, 2018) - However, adolescents are getting less sleep! - The percentage of adolescents sleeping more than 7 hours per night is less than 40% (Keyes et al., 2015) - But when undisturbed, adolescents typically sleep over 9 hours per night (Carskadon, 2011)

Answer 133

- Inconsistent sleep is associated with reduced frontal lobe gray matter thickness and poorer inhibitory control in adolescents (Lapidaire et al., 2021).  Catching up on sleep on weekends was associated with increased white matter density and increased emotional control in adolescents (Guldner et al., 2023) - Different effects for males vs. females! Sleep deprivation has a stronger effect on executive functioning in male adolescents than females (Kuula et al., 2015).  Individual differences may exist! - Sleep may be a protective factor in managing the adolescent critical period of brain development!

Answer 134

- Increased emotional intensity: adolescents experience emotions more intensely due to heightened limbic system activity

Answer 135

Mood swings become more common due to hormonal fluctuations (testosterone, oestrogen, cortisol)

Answer 136

- Heighted self-consciousness: adolescents become more aware of how they are perceived by peers, often leading to social anxiety  ‘The imaginary audience’ effect – many adolescents believe others are constantly watching and judging them, which can influence their behaviour (Elkind, 1967)

Answer 137

- Larson et al. (2002) – longitudinal experience sampling study - Participants: 200 youth, surveyed at random times for one week, then again for one week 4 years later - Findings:  Emotional states become less positive across early adolescence  Decline in positive emotions stopped by grade 10 (suggesting stabilisation in late adolescence)

Answer 138

- Between ages 12-18: (Zemen et al., 2006)  Greater awareness of emotions and their consequences  Increase in self-conscious emotions in frequency and intensity (e.g. shame, embarrassment, pride)  More complex emotion regulation strategies emerge - Adolescents experience heightened emotional self-awareness and an increase in self-conscious emotions, influencing their social and psychological development

Answer 139

- Increase in cognitive coping strategies to manage negative emotions across adolescence.

Answer 140

 Positive reappraisal (rethinking a situation in a more positive way).  Refocus on planning (developing strategies to deal with stress).

Answer 141

 Rumination (dwelling on negative feelings).  Self-blame (placing excessive responsibility on oneself).

Answer 142

- Increased social anxiety: greater fear of judgment and rejection, particularly in peer settings - Peer relationships become less activity-focused in adolescence

Answer 143

- Stronger desire for independence: shift from family-oriented to peer-focused social structures  Achieving mature peer relations  Achieving independence from adults

Answer 144

- Greater risk-taking: more likely to engage in thrill-seeking behaviours due to an imbalance between the limbic system (emotion) and the prefrontal cortex (regulation)(Steinberg, 2007)

Answer 145

- Identity exploration: Adolescents experiment with different roles, values, and beliefs as they form a sense of self (Kroger, 2006)  Greater exploration of intimacy and relationships

Answer 146

- How is Facebook use related to Imaginary Audience ideation (the belief that others are constantly watching and judging)? - Participants: 9-26 years

Answer 147

- Facebook use is positively associated with Imaginary Audience ideation  Adolescents who used Facebook more were more likely to feel watched or judged - The more adolescents engaged in social comparison and strategic self-presentation, the stronger their imaginary audience perception - Self-consciousness and social media behaviours are intertwined  Adolescents who frequently thought about their self-presentation also engaged in image control online

Answer 148

- Study of peer rejection using Cyberball and fMRI (Sebasitain et al.m 2011) - Cyberball task  Participants play a virtual ball-toss game; eventually, they are excluded by the others: (controlled by researchers) to simulate rejection

Answer 149

 Adolescents’ distress  Higher distress from social exclusion than adults  Brain activation (MRI results)  Greater activation in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during social exclusion

Answer 150

They become more important

Answer 151

- Key in development of identity  Friendships provide social support and sense of belonging

Answer 152

- Often based on intimacy/self-disclosure  Change from earlier focus on shared activities seen in childhood

Answer 153

 Depends on the peers and environment  Tend to be more positive than negative.  Positive: emotional support, intimacy  Negative: bullying, encouraging risk

Answer 154

- Attachment to parents  Adolescents still seek security and support, but independence increases.  A shift occurs toward a balance between attachment and exploration

Answer 155

 Some conflict with parents is common – but not for everyone!  Intensity and frequency of conflict peak in early adolescence and decline by late adolescence.

Answer 156

 Early attachment patterns and child temperament influence adolescent relationships.  Warm, responsive parenting predicts stronger bonds and healthier adjustment.  Authoritative parenting (high warmth + firm guidance) fosters independence and well-being.

Answer 157

 Chess & Thomas (1984):  Adolescents in conflict-prone relationships fare best when parents remain calm but firm.  Excessively harsh or permissive parenting can worsen behavioural issues.

Answer 158

Responsiveness (warmth) Demand-control (control)

Answer 159

 Supportiveness & sensitivity to need

Answer 160

- Most successful parenting style: authoritative - Exercise power: reasonable set of rules - Also responsive to needs - Supportive and flexible

Answer 161

Linked to better adolescent adjustment across cultures - Predicts:  Higher confidence & cooperation  Lower delinquency & trouble  Better mental health  Improved school performance

Answer 162

 Found that adolescent adjustments predicts changes to parenting, rather than the reverse  Good parenting is adaptive – parents adjust to their approach their approach based on their teen’s needs

Answer 163

 Linked to lower risk-taking behaviours (moderate control + emotional support).

Answer 164

 Examined smoking and drinking behaviours in 2,000+ 12- 22-year-olds. - Findings:  Low emotional responsiveness from parents linked to higher risk-taking.  Lack of identification with parents and negative family interactions also predicted higher risk-taking behaviours. - Parental relationships and parenting styles may be a risk factor for risky behaviours in adolescents

Answer 165

- Adolescents took more risks when peers were watching (Peer condition). - fMRI results: Adolescents showed higher activity in reward-related brain regions in the Peer condition - Cognitive control brain regions (prefrontal cortex) were less active in adolescents compared to adults, but did not change with peer presence.

Answer 166

- Does the presence of peers increase risk-taking in adolescents? - Participants completed a driving-simulator task in two conditions:  Alone (no observers)  Peer condition (friends observed from another room – surprise condition!) - Participants:  Adolescents (14–18 years)  Young Adults (19–24 years)  Adults (24–29 years)

Answer 167

Participants inflate a virtual balloon, earning money for each inflation. The risk is that the balloon might pop, causing them to lose all money accumulated.

Answer 168

Adolescents (14-18 years) show higher risk-taking, inflating the balloon more times compared to adults and children. This supports the idea that adolescence is a peak period for risky behaviour.

Answer 169

Yes. - Higher risk-taking in adolescence than children or adults  Criminal behaviour, drugs, reckless driving, dangerous sports, antisocial behaviour…..  But still only minority teenagers

Answer 170

Proposed that this mismatch between the fast development of the limbic system and the slow development of the prefrontal cortex Adolescents are more likely to seek out rewarding experiences (e.g., peer approval, excitement, novelty) because their limbic system is highly responsive. Because the prefrontal cortex is still maturing, adolescents may not fully anticipate the consequences of their actions

Answer 171

- Telzer et al. (2015) - Assessed peer conflict and risk-taking - Participants: Adolescents 15-17 years completed the BART

Answer 172

 Chronic peer conflict associated with:  More risky behaviour on Balloon task  Greater brain activity during risk-taking in a limbic area (striatum) associated with higher reward sensitivity.

Answer 173

- 5th edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s manual for identifying conditions - A classification system for identifying, diagnosing, and treating mental health conditions - Used by clinicains, researchers and policymakers worldwide

Answer 174

- Mental health understanding evolves over time (e.g. homosexuality was a disorder in DSM-I, 1952) - New research leads to updated definitions and criteria - Each edition reflects shifting cultural and scientific perspectives

Answer 175

Lack of empirical support – Some diagnostic categories are not strongly backed by research Low interrater reliability – Clinicians often disagree on diagnoses for certain disorders Influence of Big Pharma – Concerns that pharmaceutical companies shape diagnostic criteria Culturally biased – Based largely on Western norms, potentially misdiagnosing diverse populations Medicalizes normal experiences – Expands diagnostic categories to include everyday struggles (e.g., grief vs. depression)

Answer 176

- Incorporates practical knowledge – Draws from extensive clinical experience and case studies - Refinement of material – Refined criteria for certain disorders (e.g., autism spectrum changes) - A useful “one-stop shop” – Standardized tool for diagnosing mental disorders - Common ground for clinicians & researchers – Creates a shared language for mental health professionals

Answer 177

Normal’ changes over time and across contexts  DSM: Homosexuality classified as a disorder until 1973  Left-handedness once seen as a disability or defect

Answer 178

 Culture matters: some behaviours considered disorders in one society are seen as strengths or spiritual gifts in another

Answer 179

 Environment matters: a trait that’s problematic in one setting may be an advantage in another (e.g. ADHD in school vs. entrepreneurship)

Answer 180

- ‘Normality’ is not a fixed concept – it depends on historical, cultural, and situational context - Labels shape perception – once diagnosed, behaviour is interpreted through that lens  E.g. ‘Sane in insane places’ study (Rosenhan, 1973)

Answer 181

- Examine the validity of psychiatric diagnoses by determining if mental health professionals could distinguish between ‘sane; and ‘insane’ individuals  Note: language used to describe mental illness is now unconventional

Answer 182

- Eight ‘pseudo-patients’ (including Rosenhan) feigned auditory hallucinations to gain admission to 12 different psychiatric hospitals - After admissions, they behaved normally and reported no further hallucination

Answer 183

- All were admitted with diagnoses of paranoid schizophrenia. - Hospital stays ranged from 7 to 52 days (average 19 days). - Staff failed to identify the pseudo-patients as impostors; however, some actual patients suspected the truth. - All patients were eventually discharged - Labelled “remitted schizophrenia” upon discharge

Answer 184

- Labels stick: Once diagnosed, normal behaviour was interpreted as pathological - Power of context: The hospital environment shaped perceptions of behaviour

Answer 185

- A hospital doubted Rosenhan’s findings and claimed they could detect pseudo-patients

Answer 186

- Rosenhan informed the hospital that pseudo-patients would attempt admission over the next three months - Staff were asked to rate each new patient on a 10-point scale regarding the likelihood of being a pseudo-patient

Answer 187

- Out of 193 patients, 41 were suspected as ‘imposters’ by at least one staff member - But no pseudo-patients were sent

Answer 188

- The idea that everyone has unique cognitive, behavioural, and emotional differences - Conditions like autism and ADHD are just variations in human functioning rather than deficits

Answer 189

View neurodivergence as a disorder or deficit that needs to be diagnosed and treated. Focuses on symptoms, deficits, impairments, and possible interventions e.g., ADHD is seen as an inability to focus

Answer 190

Sees neurodivergence as a natural variation in human thinking and behaviour. Challenges the idea that difficulties arise from the individual rather than societal barriers. e.g., Instead of "fixing" an autistic person’s sensory sensitivities, environments could be adjusted (e.g., quiet spaces, flexible work policies).

Answer 191

- A neurodevelopmental condition affecting social interaction, communication, and behaviour. - Exists on a spectrum—each autistic person has unique strengths and challenges.

Answer 192

Differences in social communication (e.g., difficulty with eye contact, interpreting social cues). Repetitive behaviours & special interests (e.g., routines, deep focus on specific topics). Sensory differences (e.g., heightened or reduced sensitivity to sounds, lights, textures).

Answer 193

Males are 4 x more likely to be diagnosed than females Ongoing debate about why Do males actually have autism more often? Or are males easier to diagnose due to more ‘textbook’ presentation? Autistic females may mask their traits, leading to underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis (e.g., as anxiety or social difficulties)

Answer 194

- Recruited children (ASD & control group) aged 2 to 7 years. - Parents provided retroactive home videos from infancy at 2 time points (9–12 months & 15– 18 months). - Researchers analysed early social behaviours to identify early signs of autism

Answer 195

- Differences in early social behaviours - Joint attention: Less likely to follow gaze or point to share interest. - Behavioural regulation gestures: Fewer gestures like waving or reaching to request help. - Social interaction: Less eye contact, smiling, or back-and-forth interactions.

Answer 196

- Genetics – multiple interacting genes play a role rather than a single gene (Sandin et al., 2017)

Answer 197

- Brain differences – increased neuron proliferation in frontal lobes (Benaron, 2009)

Answer 198

- Perinatal influences – factors during pregnancy  Parental age – older parents = slightly higher likelihood  Pregnancy complications – e.g. exposure to toxins, infections in utero

Answer 199

- Neglectful parenting – the outdated ‘refrigerator mother’ theory has been thoroughly disproven - Vaccines – the claim that MMR causes autism has been scientifically debunked - Post-natal toxins/infections – autism develops before birth, not due to environmental exposure after birth

Answer 200

- A controversial type of therapy - Focuses on modifying behaviours using principles of reinforcement and punishment.  Developed from B.F. Skinner’s operant conditioning theories.  Can cause distress for the individual - Often used to teach communication, social skills, and daily living activities  Can improve communication and social skills for some children with autism.

Answer 201

- Inattention (6+ months, inappropriate for developmental level) - Hyperactivity & Impulsivity (6+ months, inappropriate for developmental level) - Symptoms must be seen in at least two settings (e.g., home, school, work) - Symptoms significantly impact daily life (social, academic, or occupational functioning) - Not better explained by another condition - Symptoms appear by age 12.

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- Genetics – highly heritable! - Brain developmental differences – structure & function of frontal lobes linked to inhibitory problems, imbalance of neurotransmitters (Barkley, 2006) - Prenatal influences – factors during pregnancy  Pregnancy complications (e.g. exposure to toxins, infections in utero)

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- Classroom management: feedback, planned ignoring, time-out, daily reports, adapting educational materials - Psychosocial intervention: child and parent behaviour training and support

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- Drug treatment (e.g. Ritalin and ither stimulants) - Physical exercise: positive effects on cognitive symptoms (Lambez et al., 2020) - Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): learning coping skills

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- Ages 2-5 - Previously, depression was thought to be impossible in preschool children. - Recent evidence:  Preschoolers are emotionally sophisticated and can experience key symptoms of depression.

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 Irritability, withdrawal, loss of pleasure.  Lack of attachment, parental depression, and increased risk for later depression.

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- Ages 5-12 - Persistent low mood and loss of interest in everyday activities. . - Prevalence:  Affects approximately 20 in 1000 children.  Often occurs alongside other mental health conditions (co-morbidity

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 Depressed mood, irritability, sleep disturbances, fatigue, poor concentration, withdrawal, loss of interest in social activities.

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- Prevalence:  Affects up to 70 in 1000 adolescents. - Genetic & biological influences:  Imbalances in serotonin and cortisol  Often a family history of mental health issues - Environmental & family Influences:  Stressful events or losses  Abuse or neglect - Sex Differences in Clinical Depression:  Girls > Boys from age 12 onwards  Especially if early puberty, family problems, and stressors  Girls are more likely to use ruminative coping strategies

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Anti-depressants Cognitive behavioral therapy

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 Do improve symptoms in severe depression.  May have side-effects: controversy about suicidal thoughts.

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 CBT effective in mild-moderate depression.  More effective than anti-depressants  Effective in mental health and social work settings.

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 Older adults have fewer neurons than younger adults  About 5-10% fewer neurons at age 65 than at age 20

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 Neurogenesis (new neurons) can still occur especially in the hippocampus (important for memory)  Brain remains plastic (changeable) even in later life

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 Occurs inside neurons as tau protein begins to deform and tangle  Associated with Alzheimer's disease, but also increases naturally with age

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 Occurs outside of neurons as clumps of dead/dying neurons and proteins accumulate  More common with age, even in people without dementia

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 Especially in the frontal lobes  Shrinkage is due to natural aging  Could be related to mini-strokes (infarcts) and accumulated small traumas

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 White matter (the brain’s communication highways) declines more than grey matter (neuron bodies). This affects how efficiently brain areas talk to each other

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- Many age-related cognitive changes are linked to frontal lobe - Especially affects executive functions: planning, multitasking, inhibiting distractions

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Last in, first out.

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- A small, seahorse-shaped structure deep in the brain - Crucial for forming new memories and for spatial navigation - One of the first regions affected in Alzheimer’s disease - There are two structures (on each side of the brain) that comprise the hippocampus

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- The hippocampus shrinks as we get older - This shrinkage reflects loss of neurons and connections - Studies show accelerated shrinkage in older age (Fjell et al., 2013)

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- Smaller hippocampal size is linked to poorer memory - In a study of adults aged 81-94, those with smaller hippocampi had more memory impairments (Lye et al., 2004)

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- Blood flows closely linked to brain activity. - When a brain region is active, it needs more oxygen and nutrients, which increases blood flow to that area. - So, by measuring blood flow, researchers can infer which areas of the brain are working harder during tasks.

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 Older adults have lower frontal lobe blood flow than younger adults  Suggests reduced baseline activation of frontal love with age

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 Older adults show higher frontal blood flow compared to younger adults  Indicates they are recruiting more frontal resources to complete complex tasks

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- It’s the system that lets us hold a small amount of information for a short time (up to 30 seconds – 1 minute)

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 Limited to around 5-9 items (Miller’s “Magic number 7 ± 2”)  You can test this with the digit span task:  Listen to a sting of numbers and repeat them back

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- Not much - Digit span scores stay relatively stable into older adulthood - This suggests that the basic ability to hold small amounts of information is preserved even as other types of memory change

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- More than just short-term storage - WM lets us hold information in mind while actively using it

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- Use of tasks where information needs to be manipulated or processed simultaneously

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- Reading comprehension (remembering what you just read while processing the next sentence) - Mental arithmetic (holding numbers in your head while calculating) - Conversation (keeping track of what's being said while planning your response

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- Older adults show declines in working memory capacity - Especially when tasks require simultaneous storage and processing.

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- Memory for events - Involves remembering what happened, where and when - E.g. remembering items from a shopping list or what you did last weekend

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- Episodic memory often shows early and noticeable decline with age - In lab studies, older adults tend to:  Recall fewer items from word lists  Make more intrusion errors (recalling words that weren’t on the list)  Use fewer effective strategies, like mental imagery or chunking

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- Memory for your personal life history - Combines episodic memory (specific events) and semantic memory (general facts about your life)  E.g., remembering what happened on your 18th birthday and where you celebrated it.

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- Well preserved in older adults! → Especially for early childhood memories - This supports the "reminiscence bump" – a tendency to recall more memories from youth and early adulthood

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- Jeanne Calment showed high autobiographical memory accuracy even at age 118 through neuropsychological testing (Ritchie, 1995)

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- Memory for how to do things - Acquired skills retained in memory - E.g., Riding a bike - Usually remains intact with age—even in older adults with cognitive decline

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- Memory for facts - E.g., how to spell your name - Usually remains intact with age (may even improve!)—even in older adults with cognitive decline

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- Consider: Prospective memory - Prospective memory: Memory for future intentions; remembering to carry out a task at the right time  E.g., Remembering a doctor’s appointment Henry et al. (2004) meta-analysis found an “age paradox”: - In the lab: Younger adults outperform older adults on prospective memory tasks - In real life: Older adults often do better than younger adults!

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 The capacity to learn from experience and adapt to the environment

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Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence

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- Ability to solve novel problems without relying on prior knowledge - Ability to be flexible and adaptive - E.g. figuring out a new phone, solving Sudoku

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- Peaks in early adulthood, then declines with age

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- Accumulated knowledge and experience - E.g. Knowing historical facts, offering advice, using rich vocabulary, vocabulary test - Dependant on culture

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- Remains stable or improves with ages

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 Brain’s resilience to age-related decline or damage.  Helps explain why some people maintain mental sharpness despite brain aging or pathology.

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 Education: Higher levels of education  Complex careers: Jobs that challenge thinking and decision-making  Mentally and socially stimulating activities: e.g., Book clubs, travel  Good physical health and fitness  Strong attention and processing speed  Flexible personality: Open to new experiences and adaptable to change

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 Computerized tasks or apps designed to improve memory, attention, reasoning, or speed (e.g. Lumosity, BrainHQ)  Usually includes repetitive puzzles or games  Sometimes known as “brain games

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 Short-term task improvement is common  People get better at the trained task  It is not transferable to tasks outside of the game metrics  No strong evidence that improvements transfer to:  Everyday memory  Decision making  Real-world cognitive functioning

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 Exercise increases blood flow to the brain  Promotes neurogenesis especially in the hippocampus  Triggers release of proteins that supports brain cell function.

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 716 adults aged 60+, tracked over 4 years - Findings:  Those with higher physical activity:  Had slower cognitive decline  Showed a lower risk of developing dementia

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- Proposes that our motivational goals change with age - Young adults often see time as expansive  focus on learning, exploring, and preparing for the future - Older adults become more aware of limited time  focus on emotionally meaningful goals and experience in the present - This shift influences how older adults manage emotions, attention, and memory

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- Chose situations which maximise positive emotions - Be biased to attend to and remember positive information - Reappraise situations in a positive way - Regulate emotions to emphasise the positive

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- Despite physical or cognitive decline, many older adults report greater emotional well-being - No decline – and sometimes an improvement – in life satisfaction - Supported by both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies - Found across cultures: UK, US, China, Nigeria - Lawton (1991):  Older adults (even 85+) often more content  Report less negative affect such as anger, anxiety and depression

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- Anger declines steadily with age  Older adults report significantly less frequent anger than younger adults  Possibly due to better emotion regulation and fewer social threats

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 Less of a decline compared to anger  May reflect sadness being more tied to loss

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- Lowest levels of anxiety reported by adults aged 60 and above - May reflect greater emotional regulation, life experience, or reduced daily stressors

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- Peak happiness reported between ages 65-79 - Possibility linked to retirement, more free time, and social connectedness

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- Less frequently diagnosed in older adults compared to younger people - May be due to underreporting, stigma, or different symptom expression - Scottish data shows lower reported rates of depressive symptoms in older age groups (e.g., 65–74). - More common in women than in men across the lifespan

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 Caring responsibilities (e.g., for a spouse or grandchildren)  Chronic physical health conditions (e.g., arthritis, cardiovascular disease)  Social isolation, bereavement and reduced mobility

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- The prefrontal cortex helps with emotion regulation (e.g., reappraising situations) - Older adults often show increased prefrontal cortex activity when focusing on positive emotions  Suggests that the frontal lobe is recruited to improve emotion regulation (Mammarella et al., 2017)

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- The amygdala processes emotional information, especially fear and threat - In older adults, it becomes less reactive to negative stimuli, which may reduce distressing emotions experienced (Mather & Carstensen, 2005)

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: viewed pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral scenes while brain activity was measured (fMRI)

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- Young adults: amugdala responded stongly to both pleasant and unpleasant images - Older adults:  Strong amygdala activity for pleasant images (same as young adults)  Reduced amygdala activity for unpleasant images → Suggests a reduced sensitivity to negative emotional content

Answer 267

- Most grandparents report regular or fairly regular contact with their grandchildren - These relationships often contribute positively to emotional wellbeing

Answer 268

- A large European study of over 10,000 older adults found that grandparents who provided childcare showed better executive functioning than those who did not (Apino & Bordone, 2014) - Even when controlling for sociodemographic and health-related variables.

Answer 269

- Very traditional marriage - Sudden (rather than protracted) death - Social isolation - Income loss

Answer 270

- Social networks shrink after age 70  Quality and quantity is lined with wellbeing  Fewer friends (typically older friendships) - Friendships > family  For older adults, contact with friends is more strongly linked to well-being than contact with relatives

Answer 271

 Risky health behaviours (e.g., smoking, low physical activity)  Poor nutrition  Cognitive decline and dementia  Increased risk of stroke and heart attack

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 Poor health increases social isolation, and social isolation worsens health outcomes.

Answer 273

- Longitudinal study of 2,387 older adults in Taiwan - Tracked over time to examine links between social activity and cognitive decline

Answer 274

- Greater participation in social activities predicted slower cognitive decline - Social activity outside the family and the strongest protective effect

Answer 275

- Social engagement may:  Provide mental stimulation  Support emotional regulation  Encourage healthy routines and behaviours

Developmental psychology - Semester 2 Flashcards

(301 cards)