Evolution and Emotion - Semester 2 Flashcards

Question

What is inter-sex selection?

Answer 1

- When members of one sex are selective when choosing a mate, requiring members of the other sex to present themselves as attractive to potential mates

Answer 2

 Females prefer long colourful tails  Any male with long tail benefits  Might suggest ‘good’ genes: healthy and can survive long enough even with handicap

Answer 3

 Does not improve flight  Vulnerable to predators

Answer 4

- Competition for mates within one sex (usually males) - Females fight for resources not for mates

Answer 5

 Time: finding mates and persuade to engage  Energy: approach and act  Vulnerability: to predators, competitors  Proximity: aggression (Australian Redback spider)  Disease transmission  Only transmit half your genes (half # offspring)

Answer 6

- Introduces variability – better chance of adaptation to changing environment - Better ability to overcome diseases, competitors and predators: arms race - Quick spread of ‘beneficial’ mutations (not so in asexual reproduction) - Improved immune system - DNA repair during meiosis - The reason for sexual reproduction could be one of the above reasons or a combination of them, it is not clear

Answer 7

 External difference  Pregnancy/taking care of offspring  Phallus/genitals

Answer 8

by gametes  Egg; female  Sperm; male

Answer 9

Egg = large, most with food, most with protective shell, expensive (in terms of energy), few produced Sperm = small, no food, no protective shell, cheap (in terms of energy), lots produced

Answer 10

- The sex that invests the most will be the choosy one  Females usually invest more  Females stand to lose the most  Rate limiting step - Therefore, sexual selection is by females - Females choose, males compete (generally but not always).

Answer 11

- Males are DNA providers  Invest little, so can fertilise several females  Some can go without mates, hence intense male-male competition

Answer 12

- Female reproduction does not depend on the number of male mates  Invest much, hence choose males of high quality  With best genes  Most willing to provide food and protection  With ‘sexy’ traits (e.g. peacock tails)

Answer 13

Women = large egg, 9 month pregnancy, 15kg nutrients, 2-4 years of nursing Men = small numerous sperm, 5 minutes of copulation, no nutrients, no nursing

Answer 14

Women = Large egg, 9 month pregnancy, 15kg nutrients, 2-4 years of nursing, several years of teaching, providing food, protection etc Men = small numerous sperm, Bring food, protection, bring up the child together, teach

Answer 15

 Physical traits  Psychological traits: differences in sexual strategies between sexes  Short-term (minimal investment scenario)  Long-term (typical investment scenario)

Answer 16

- Difference in male-female body size (or other traits) - Male-male competition: high dimorphism - In polygynous species (Gorilla, elephant, seals, baboons): High dimorphism

Answer 17

 Secondary sexual characteristics  Permanent enlargement of breasts in females  Penis size in males

Answer 18

- Required to solve survival and reproductive problems - Different ‘problems’ for the sexes result in different preferences - Mate preferences driven by need to solve particular problems

Answer 19

- Any willing parter - Signs of fertility:  Youth  Low waist-hip ration  Clear skin  Etc

Answer 20

- Signs of food genes: - Features indicating high testosterone (tall, muscular, strong chin, prominent brows, symmetrical, etc) - Courtship prized (resources, commitment)

Answer 21

- Males invest modestly, therefore should seek  Multiple partners  Paternity confirmation  Young, fertile females: more children over lifetime

Answer 22

- Females need resources therefore should seek  Ability and willingness to invest  Stability and resources  Fertility

Answer 23

- Behaviour that results in a benefit for another entity - An evolutionary paradox: needs explanation - How can ‘selfish’ beings cooperate?

Answer 24

- Mutualism: immediate benefits to both (all) parties  Can be explained by individual ‘selfishness’  Non-zero sum (everyone can win, just because someone wins does not mean the other lose  Zero-sum (one person wins the other person loses)  By-product (someone benefits but it was not purposeful)

Answer 25

- Altruism (‘True’ cooperation): Immediate benefit to only beneficiary  At a cost to a giver  Requires explanation  Kin (when you are related to someone, why do people related to you help you? Evidence suggests we tend to help our kin due to inclusive fitness, helping kin will in some way benefit you)  Non kin (non-related, most prevalent in humans is reciprocal altruism)

Answer 26

- Organisms help each other if related - Inclusive fitness is key - Helping relatives increases number of gene copies - Bees (and other eusocial insects) sacrifice life to protect hive - Naked mole-rats help defend colony - Some animals help raise others’ offspring  Bee-eaters, tamarins, meerkats

Answer 27

- Hamilton’s rule - Help is: rB>C - B = Benefit to other (beneficiary) - C = Cost to self (actor) - R = relatedness between self and other - Self-child = 0.5 - Self-parent = 0.5 - Self-niece= 0.25 - If you save 5 nieces and nephews from a fire, while dying in the process  rB= 0.25 x 5 = 1.25  C = 1  rB > C; gene for ‘urge to save related children from death’ will propagate - Maximize inclusive fitness - Requires kin recognition  E.g., smell, co-habitation, serve as cues

Answer 28

- I scratch your back now, you scratch mine (later) - Appears altruistic if observed now, but ‘selfish’ over the long term  Benefit to other immediate, but potential benefit to self over the long run - Best explanation of human altruism (to non-kin)  ‘Game theory’ studies

Answer 29

1. Individual recognition 2. Memory for past interactions 3. Quantification costs and benefits 4. Time assessment 5. Recognise and punish cheaters 6. Inhibit selfish desires/impulses 7. Recognise intentions and goals (was the act accidental or intentional?)

Answer 30

- Liking: initiate altruistic partnership with those likely to reciprocate - Anger: reaction to being cheated: avoid and/or punish cheater - Gratitude: reaction to being helped: return favour in future - Sympathy: help those in need; earn gratitude - Guilt: recover from cheating; return extra benefit after cheating - Shame: punish self after cheating; avoid or reduce punishment, by showing reduced chances of future cheating

Answer 31

- Example: leave tip on a trip; sacrifice for saving others’ lives; kidney donation - Tendency to be nice first  Psychological adaptation to RA  Benefit in the long run: being nice wins  Reinforced by strong emotions and reputation - Culture, religion, ethics can multiply this predisposition, but appear to follow evolutionary history - ‘Cooperation, in all its forms, is adaptive!’

Answer 32

Fairness is an outgrowth of reciprocal altruism (I help you now, and you help me … later)

Answer 33

- Appears to be an innate trait - Modulated by amount and kind of cooperation observed in the society - What is considered ‘fair’ changes, but the concept of fairness is universal - Based on reciprocal altruism mechanisms

Answer 34

- Climate change - Abortion - Immigration - Poverty - Social safety net - Capital punishment - War - Infidelity - Genetics - Nuclear armament - Animal rights - Homosexuality and gender identity

Answer 35

- Two (evolutionary) psychological theories  Moral foundations theory (Jonathan Haidt)  Morality as cooperation (Oliver Scott Curry)

Answer 36

 Involuntary, unconscious, emotion-driven  Conscious, rational, deliberate, principled  Combination of the two: instinctive decision followed by rationalisation + emotion

Answer 37

 Moral sense is not cold deliberation of costs and benefits

Answer 38

“Objects of rage, love, fear, etc., not only prompt a man to outward deeds, but provoke characteristic alterations in his attitude and visage, and affect his breathing, circulation, and other organic functions in specific ways. When the outward deeds are inhibited, these latter emotional expressions still remain, and we read the anger in the face, though the blow may not be struck, and the fear betrays itself in voice and color, though one may suppress all other sign.” (William James, 1890)

Answer 39

- Inform us of who we are, what our relationships with others are like, and how to behave in social interactions - Give meaning to events – without emotions, events would be mere facts - Help coordinate interpersonal relationships - Play an important role in the cultural functioning of keeping human societies together

Answer 40

- An emotional ‘state’ that can last for hours, days, weeks - Can be low intensity. Vague - When a mood begins, and ends is hard to tell - ‘Objectless’ ‘Free floating’

Answer 41

- Subjective representations of emotions - Only you know how it feels to experience your own emotions - Internalised

Answer 42

- Often used to describe emotion, mood & feelings together - The term affect and emotion are used interchangeably

Answer 43

- Rapid information processing system - Minimal conscious awareness, minimal though (cognition) - Prepares body for immediate action - Drive

Answer 44

- AROUSAL system: bodily state - LIMBIC system: brain activity - NEUROTRANSMITTERS: chemical transmission

Answer 45

- Entire system is guided by a desire to seek rewarding or pleasurable things while avoiding undesirable or punishing things.

Answer 46

- Facial, vocal, bodily expression - Value signals, influence others - Communication role - Prosody: tone of voice - Non-speech vocalisation

Answer 47

- Many different emotion recognition tasks  Verbal labelling  Matching  Change sensitivity  Dynamic movies

Answer 48

- Used to measure ability/impairment in many different clinical and subclinical groups  Depression  Parkinson’s Disease  Autism  Schizophrenia  Anxiety  Violent offenders - Child development and adult aging

Answer 49

- Discrete categories vs Dimensional models

Answer 50

- Adaptive, evolved to deal with fundamental life tasks, distinctive appearance, common to all

Answer 51

- Systematically categorises movement of facial muscles that produce emotional expressions - Manually code nearly any expression  Action Units (AU’s): contraction or relaxation of one or more muscles. Independent of interpretation  Intensity scores: A – E

Answer 52

- Literally means ‘the opposite of taste’ - Revulsion, offensive, motivation to stay away - Implicit, innate reaction, rapid, and visceral response - Also the violation of social norms or etiquette, moral disgust, contempt

Answer 53

- Increased arousal, similar to fear - Rage, aggression - Expression of hostility / unfairness / fault in controllable situation / frustration / can lead to disappointment - Passive versus active - Plays a key role in social groups

Answer 54

- Most widely studies - Rapid and fairly brief response to an external stimulus - Motivates readiness for action/avoidance - Seen in eyes … we are sensitive to the whites of the eyes - Fear is useful. Protection from danger - But excessive fear can be debilitating

Answer 55

- Pleasure, reward - Anticipating or achieving something good - The only positive emotion in the discrete list - Associated with smiling, although not uniquely - Joy = short-lived / Happiness = longer lasting - Positive emotions studied less than negative

Answer 56

- Seems to extend beyond strict definition of an emotion - Defined as an emotion that results from loss - No control over loss, hopelessness, helplessness, irreversible - Hard to find unique features of sadness to measure - Yet a sad facial expression is quite clear

Answer 57

- Tricky to categorise - Can be both positive or negative. Facially similar to fear - Relatively little studied - Reaction to novelty: interrupt from one path of behaviour and focus attention on something new significant - ‘…For story purposes, Docter needed simplicity; five [emotions], he says, was “just enough for dissension and entertainment.”’  Surprise not included in Inside out

Answer 58

- A dimension is an axis on which something can vary in terms of strength, magnitude etc

Answer 59

- Arousal versus Valence - Includes ‘secondary’ emotions - Cognitively more complex - Harder to link specific facial expressions to these

Answer 60

- Embarrassment - Ennui - Anxiety - Envy

Answer 61

- Congenitally blind people can produce all the basic facial expressions, although not always as recognisable - Use similar underlying facial muscles - 2-day old babies react to sweet tastes with a smile and bitter tastes with a grimace

Answer 62

- How, when, and where certain emotions should be expressed, according to custom & culture. - Culture exists to maintain social order to ensure group efficiency and ultimately survival. - Important to engage in socially appropriate behaviour. - Helps us integrate into a social order (the need to belong).

Answer 63

Japan: tendency to hide emotions. - Private film viewing, Japanese & Americans similar expression response. - Public film viewing, Japanese covered true feelings. - Ekman, 1972; Friesen, 1972. - Japan: smile used to hide anger

Answer 64

- Easten culture: concerned with others - Western culture: concerned with self. Egotistical

Answer 65

- Prevent potentially harmful misunderstandings. - E.g., low arousal states “quiet” and “reserved” could be misinterpreted as expressions of “boredom” or “disengagement”.

Answer 66

- Marget Mead, 1960s: expressions learned and culture specific - No biological basis - Experience and context

Answer 67

- A state of physical and mental alertness - Body & brain is charged with energy

Answer 68

 Consciousness  Attention  Information processing  Motivation  Emotion

Answer 69

 Relationship between arousal and task performance  Too much or too little impairs performance  All about balance

Answer 70

- Neurons are electrically excitable cells - A collection of neurons forms a Neural Network - Neurons process & transmit information through electrical and chemical signals - Chemical signals are transferred via Neurotransmitters across a synapse

Answer 71

Serotonin Dopamine Noradrenaline Acetylcholine

Answer 72

Feel good factor Links to depression Low levels can impair emotion regulation: aggression, impulsivity, inability to handle powerful emotions

Answer 73

Reward: increases dopamine transmission Role in addiction

Answer 74

Stress, high arousal Alertness Adrenalin produced Critical role in attention and executive control (agitation, concentration)

Answer 75

Muscle activation Automatic nervous system (heart rate, breathing, reflex actions) Fight or flight

Answer 76

- Collection of brain structures that help us experience emotion  Thalamus  Hippocampus  Amygdala - Connects to cortex

Answer 77

- Memory and attention  Episodic-autobiographical - Emotional alarm system  Perception and response to threat - Connects to facial muscles

Answer 78

- Greater amygdala activity during an emotional event enhances later memory

Answer 79

 Lesions of the amygdala impair recognition of fear in faces (Adolphs et al., 1995)  Bilateral amygdala damage: inability to spontaneously fixate eye region; impairs fear recognition (Morris et al., 2002)

Answer 80

- Fmri measures changes in blood flow and blood oxygenation in the brain as an indirect indication of neural activity. - Specific emotions are not located in a single structure - Network or activations – brain circuits involving nearly the whole brain

Answer 81

- Emotional film clips (amusing, surprising, fearful, disgusting, neutral) - Identified distinct patterns of electrical activity for different emotional states ‘… many parts of the brain serve more than one purpose. The brain contains a wide range of mental states’ (Feldman Barrett, 2017) > Constructed Theory of emotion - Contrasts with Classical Emotion Theory: particular brain areas have dedicated emotional functions, ‘fingerprints’

Answer 82

- Strong link between exercise and mood - Enhanced mood 5 minutes after moderate activity - Both exercise conditions reduced anxiety in comparison to the control group. No additional benefit of cognitive reappraisal

Answer 83

- Poor sleep:  Irritable, vulnerable to stress  Decreases the ability to regulate negative emotions (Mauss et al., 2012)  Amplifies negative feelings and intolerance to frustrating situations

Answer 84

- Sleep deprivation increased outward expression of aggression to other people/objects - Greater tendency to assign blame to others - Reduced willingness to make amends or find a solution

Answer 85

- Traditional view: emotion and cognition are separate

Answer 86

- Intelligence is the ‘global capacity of an individual to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with their environment’ (Wechsler, 1944) - Emotion posed a threat to rational thinking

Answer 87

- Mainly verbal and maths skills

Answer 88

- Unable to adequately explain individual differences  Cognitive elite  Tests out of date  Don’t appreciate creativity  Ignore character virtue  What about intuition

Answer 89

 Multiple intelligences theory – Gardner, 1983/1993  Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg, 1985)

Answer 90

- In response to the limitations of traditional IQ testing  Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)  Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)  Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)  Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)  Musical intelligence (“music smart”)  Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)  Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)  Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)

Answer 91

- Effort to synthesize the various theories of intelligence  Analytical (componential)  Creative (experiential)  Practical (contextual) - “ (a) mental activity directed toward purposive adaptation to selection and shaping of real-world environments relevant to one’s life" (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45)

Answer 92

Modern view: cognition and emotion are interrelated - Emotions influence decision-making, development and maintenance of relationships, other everyday behaviour. - Emotions are active mental processes that can be managed, if you have the knowledge and skills

Answer 93

- “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.” - Emotions are active mental processes that can be managed, if you have the knowledge and skills

Answer 94

1. Emotional awareness, ability to identify your own emotions and those of others. 2. Ability to harness emotions and apply them to tasks like thinking and problem solving. 3. Ability to manage emotions  regulate your own emotions  help regulate another person’s emotions.

Answer 95

1. Ability EI 2. Mixed / Trait EI

Answer 96

- A set of perceived abilities and skills - Can develop with age and experience - Does NOT involve personality traits

Answer 97

- Reasoning that takes emotions into account: 1. Emotion Perception 2. Using emotions to facilitate thinking 3. Understanding emotions 4. Managing emotions / regulation

Answer 98

- Identify emotions in yourself and others. - Facial expression, tone of voice, body language

Answer 99

- Some emotional states are useful in a certain context. - Both positive and negative moods are adaptive to different kinds of tasks.

Answer 100

- Differentiate between emotional states - Causes and emotional trajectory  Minor annoyance to irritation to anger/resentment

Answer 101

- Recognise the value and appropriateness of feeling a certain way in certain situations. - Understand strategies to regulate certain emotions.  Eg anger management. - Gain insight into other perspectives.

Answer 102

1. Boyatzis-Goleman Model (Boyatzis & Sala, 2004) 2. Bar-On Model (2006) - Unlike the Ability Model, the trait/mixed model DOES involve personality traits, combined with mental abilities. - Eg Optimism, motivation, tolerance to stress.

Answer 103

1. Intrapersonal skills: self-awareness and self- expression. 2. Interpersonal skills: Empathy, social awareness. 3. Stress management: emotional regulation and impulse control. 4. Adaptability: validate one’s feelings with external reality. Flexibility, problem-solving. 5. Mood: Optimism, happiness, contentment

Answer 104

- Aggression, harassment, violence to another - Characterised by intent, power imbalance, repeated behaviours - Relationship between bullying and emotional intelligence. - Bullies have lower empathy and concern for others. - People who have well developed EI are generally more aware of their own emotions and can manage and express those emotions more effectively.

Answer 105

 Suggested that people with high EI are more likely to report positive relations with others and less likely to report negative interactions with close friends.

Answer 106

 Lower scores on Understanding Emotions of Others was associated with higher self-reported bullying behaviours.  Difficult to understand the consequences of actions and the adverse impact their bullying behaviour has upon others.  Predictors of adolescent peer victimisation: Skills necessary for Emotional Management and Control and the use of Emotions to Direct Cognition.

Answer 107

- EI has been harnessed in many settings: workplace, schools.  Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) programmes.  “Emotional Literacy”, part of the Curriculum for Excellence in schools.

Answer 108

Emotional blindness’ - Subclinical inability to identify and describe emotions in the self and in others (Nemiah et al., 1976) - Dysfunctional emotional awareness. - Poor social attachment, and interpersonal relations. - Externally oriented thinking style. Lack of empathy. - Personality trait that affects 10% of the population.

Answer 109

 Autism.  Post-traumatic stress.  Eating disorders.  Substance abuse.  Higher tendency among older adults.

Answer 110

- “…possibility that brains (both human and animal) are process control computers contrived by evolution through natural selection” (Gallistel, 2001)  Perception  Attention  Memory  Action  Mental representations - Emotion and mood research fell out of favour - Motivation & emotion research: 1970s/1980s

Answer 111

- Affect as information theory (Schwarz & Clore, 1983; 2003) - Broaden and build theory (Fredricksson, 2004)

Answer 112

- We attend to our feelings as a source of information - Different mood states can influence the way in which we direct our attention towards information  Positive mood = ‘Global’ processing style  Negative mood = ‘Local’ processing style

Answer 113

- Different moods can influence how we think - Attention, memory, judgements - Positive mood = casual, less effortful, superficial  Reach decisions more quickly  Use less information  Avoid demanding and systematic thinking - Negative mood = effortful, systematic, analytic, vigilant  Reach decisions more slowly  Use more information  Engage in demanding and detailed thinking - Positive and negative moods are adaptive and useful for different kinds of tasks

Answer 114

- Emotion can influence how we SEE or PERCEIVE things

Answer 115

 Emotional Stroop  Go/No-go  Dot probe

Answer 116

- Traditional Stroop: Name the ink, ignore the word - Measure reaction time (RT)

Answer 117

- Flower - Caravan - Swimming - Gun - Skateboard - Bully - Emotional vs neutral words - Slower to name the ink colour when words are emotionally salient

Answer 118

Negative emotion enhances vividness and detail of memories - Compared memory for neutral vs negative items - Kensigner, Gaoff-Eaton, & Schacter, 2006) - Test items were either identical, similar or new

Answer 119

- A primary function of emotion is to guide action and to plan for similar future occurrences (Lazarus, 1991) - Logical: attention to potential threat, memory precision enhanced

Answer 120

Happy faces

Answer 121

Presence of an angry expression Immediate threat response?