devpsych review questions

Question 1

What is phonology?

Answer 1

Sound system (e.g., /b/ vs /p/)

Phonology deals with the organization and patterning of sounds in a language.

Question 2

What does morphology refer to?

Answer 2

Units of meaning (e.g., -ing, -ed)

Morphology studies the structure of words and the rules for word formation.

Question 3

Define syntax.

Answer 3

Rules for word order and sentence structure

Syntax governs how words combine to form grammatically correct sentences.

Question 4

What is semantics?

Answer 4

Word and sentence meaning

Semantics explores how meaning is conveyed through language.

Question 5

What is pragmatics?

Answer 5

Rules of language use in social context (e.g., tone, politeness)

Pragmatics considers how context influences the interpretation of meaning.

Question 6

What is a lexicon?

Answer 6

Vocabulary (all the words you know)

The lexicon includes all the words and their meanings in a language.

Question 7

What does metalinguistics refer to?

Answer 7

Ability to reflect on language itself

Metalinguistics involves thinking about and analyzing language as a system.

Question 8

What is the nativist theory of language acquisition?

Answer 8

Language is innate

Nativist theory, associated with Chomsky, posits that humans are born with an inherent capacity for language.

Question 9

What is universal grammar?

Answer 9

Inborn structure that all languages share

Universal grammar suggests that all languages have a common underlying structure.

Question 10

What is the ‘poverty of the stimulus’ argument?

Answer 10

Input is too poor for learning to come only from experience

This argument supports the idea that children can generate grammar they have not been explicitly taught.

Question 11

What does the empiricist theory of language acquisition emphasize?

Answer 11

Language is learned via reinforcement and imitation

Empiricist theory, linked to Skinner, focuses on environmental factors and behavior shaping in language learning.

Question 12

What is categorical perception in speech sounds?

Answer 12

Infants perceive speech sounds in discrete categories (e.g., /b/ vs /p/)

Categorical perception indicates that infants can distinguish between different phonemes.

Question 13

At what age can infants distinguish all phonemes in all languages?

Answer 13

Birth to 6 months

Infants are born with the ability to perceive all phonetic contrasts present in languages worldwide.

Question 14

By what age do infants lose the ability to distinguish non-native phonemes?

Answer 14

By 10–12 months

This change indicates that experience with a specific language refines phoneme perception.

Question 15

What evidence suggests a critical period in language acquisition?

Answer 15

Earlier second-language learning leads to more native-like grammar

Studies show that exposure to language during a sensitive period is crucial for achieving full fluency.

Question 16

What do ASL studies indicate about language exposure?

Answer 16

Deaf individuals exposed later in life never achieve full fluency

This supports the notion of critical periods in language acquisition.

Question 17

What is statistical learning in infants?

Answer 17

Infants track syllable co-occurrence probabilities to find word boundaries

This ability allows infants to segment speech into recognizable units.

Question 18

List the cues infants use to segment words from fluent speech.

Answer 18

• Statistical learning
• Stress patterns
• Familiar words
• Social cues

Infants combine these cues to understand language better.

Question 19

What is the whole object bias?

Answer 19

New word refers to the entire object, not part

This bias reflects an assumption children make about the meaning of new words.

Question 20

What is the taxonomic assumption in word learning?

Answer 20

Word refers to category (e.g., ‘dog’ → all dogs)

Children tend to categorize words broadly based on their learned experiences.

Question 21

What is mutual exclusivity in word learning?

Answer 21

Assume each object has only one name

This principle helps children learn new vocabulary by ruling out known words.

Question 22

What does fast mapping refer to?

Answer 22

Can learn a word after a single exposure

Fast mapping illustrates how quickly children can acquire new vocabulary.

Question 23

What is overregularization?

Answer 23

Applying grammar rules to exceptions

Examples include ‘goed,’ ‘foots,’ ‘runned,’ showing children’s understanding of grammar rules.

Question 24

What does the wug test demonstrate?

Answer 24

Children generalize grammar rules to novel words

The wug test indicates that children are learning language rules rather than merely imitating.

Question 25

What is syntactic bootstrapping?

Answer 25

Kids use sentence structure to infer a word’s meaning ## Footnote This strategy helps children learn vocabulary based on the grammatical context of words.

Question 26

What is telegraphic speech?

Answer 26

2-word phrases around 18–24 months ## Footnote Telegraphic speech typically includes only content words, reflecting early stages of grammar development.

Question 28

What is Theory of Mind (ToM)?

Answer 28

Understanding that people have mental states (beliefs, desires, intentions, knowledge) that: * May differ from reality * May differ from your own * Influence their behavior ## Footnote Example: Someone might search for a toy where they last saw it—even if it’s been moved without their knowledge.

Question 29

At what age do infants recognize goal-directed behavior?

Answer 29

6–12 months ## Footnote Example: A hand reaching for a toy.

Question 30

What do infants distinguish by 6–12 months?

Answer 30

What someone meant to do vs. what they actually did ## Footnote Example: Broken toy box example.

Question 31

What is an example of a child helping an adult that shows understanding of intention?

Answer 31

Handing a baby a dropped spoon without being asked at 18 months.

Question 32

What is the purpose of false belief tasks?

Answer 32

To test whether a child understands that someone can have a belief that is false.

Question 33

Describe the Smarties task.

Answer 33

A box labeled 'Smarties' contains pencils. Children are asked what another child will think is in the box.

Question 34

What do 3-year-olds typically answer in the Smarties task?

Answer 34

Pencils (fail).

Question 35

What do 5-year-olds typically answer in the Smarties task?

Answer 35

Smarties (pass).

Question 36

In the Sally-Anne task, what happens when Sally leaves?

Answer 36

Anne moves the marble to a box.

Question 37

What do 3-year-olds typically answer in the Sally-Anne task?

Answer 37

Box (fail).

Question 38

What do 5-year-olds typically answer in the Sally-Anne task?

Answer 38

Basket (pass).

Question 39

At what age does the understanding of false belief typically emerge?

Answer 39

Around age 4–5.

Question 40

Why is false belief important?

Answer 40

Shows that children understand: * Mental representations can differ from reality * Others act based on their beliefs, not just facts * It’s a key milestone in understanding others as thinking beings.

Question 41

What types of experiences contribute to passing false belief tasks earlier?

Answer 41

Language development, having older siblings, pretend play. ## Footnote Language development includes mental state verbs and conversations about thoughts and feelings.

Question 42

What do children understand about desires by 18 months?

Answer 42

They understand people want different things.

Question 43

What is the relationship between perception and knowledge in children?

Answer 43

They understand that seeing something leads to knowing.

Question 44

What do children struggle with until around age 4–5?

Answer 44

Separating their own knowledge from what others know (egocentrism).

Question 45

What role does language play in ToM development?

Answer 45

Language provides tools to label thoughts and beliefs and express complex ideas.

Question 46

How does delayed language affect ToM development?

Answer 46

Delayed language = delayed ToM development.

Question 47

What is a common characteristic of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) regarding false belief tasks?

Answer 47

They often fail false belief tasks well beyond age 5.

Question 48

What social skills do children with ASD typically struggle with?

Answer 48

Joint attention, pretend play, eye contact.

Question 49

What does the focus of children with ASD tend to be on?

Answer 49

Objects rather than people.

Question 50

What does the delay or impairment of ToM in children with ASD suggest?

Answer 50

ToM deficits may underlie social difficulties.

Question 51

Reading Development: Stage 0

Answer 51

Pre-K; Can recongize letters, understand print direction (words are read from left to right in English) and basic book conventions. **gain phonemic awareness**

Question 52

Reading Development: Stage 1

Answer 52

Grades 1-2; Begin phonological recoding (sounding out words); recognize high-frequency words; early reading errors show understanding

Question 53

Reading Development: Stage 3

Answer 53

Grades 2-3; Increased fleuncy, able to read longer and multisyllabic words aloud with ease

Question 54

Reading Development: Stage 3

Answer 54

Grades 4-8; Shift from learning to read to Reading to Learn; children gain new knowledge through text

Question 55

Reading Development: Stage 4

Answer 55

Highschool; Analyze multiple viewpoints, literary styles, and argument structure

Question 56

Best Predictors of Reading Success

Answer 56

1. Phonemic Awareness (able to hear and manipulate individual sounds in words, causal) 2. Letter Knowledge: knowing names and sounds of letters before starting school 3. Knowing alphabet before kindergarten (isn't causal, but correlated with parent's education... present in 86% of children who's mother graduated college and only 36% of mother who didn't graduate highschool) 4.Engagement with parents (reading to children, providing a literary rich environment) 5. Amount of Reading: US 5th graders- top 10% read 200x as much as bottom 10%.

Question 57

What skills do children need to learn how to read?

Answer 57

1. Phonemic Awareness (recognizing individual sounds) 2. Phonological recording: soudning out unfamiliar words 3. Visual Retrieval: recognizing whole words from memory 4. Print concepts: how books and writing systems work 5. Vocabulary knowledge: helps with comprehension as decoding improves

Question 58

What do good readers do when reading?

Answer 58

Combo of phonological recoding and visual retrieval (for familiar words); read frequently and increase vocabulary; they monitor their own understanding and reread or adjust strategy if something doesnt make sense

Question 59

Whole word vs Phonics

Answer 59

Focus on sound-letter correspondence or focus on whole word memorization; phonics is always better but blended approach is used in modern programs

Question 60

Dyslexia

Answer 60

Learning disorder that may stem from: * visual processing difficulties * auditory timing problems * trouble integrating sound with pring * 5-10% of children affected *cause unknown Symptoms: * inability to read easily despite normal intelligence * difficulty sounding out words * poor phonological processing * trouble with pseudo-words and sounding out to read them Treatment: * Phonological training is most effective to strengthen sound-letter connections * Early intervention improves outcomes *visual memorization of words helps but not ideal solution*

Question 61

Freud Psychosexual Theory

Answer 61

**Structures of subconcious mind: ** Id: Innate biological drives, operates on the pleasure principle, present at birth Ego: Rational part that mediates between id and reality, develops in yr 1 Superego: moral conscience by understanding parental rules, develops yr 3-6 ***Conflicts at each stage can later impact personality (eg: strict toilet training can lead to an excessive need for order, control, cleanliness **

Question 62

Freud: Stage 1

Answer 62

Oral, Ages 0-1, Weaning

Question 63

Freud: Stage 2

Answer 63

Anal, Ages 1-3, Toilet Training

Question 64

Freud: Stage 3

Answer 64

Phallic, Ages 3-6, Oedipus/ Electra Complex develops and resolves

Question 65

Freud: Stage 4

Answer 65

Latency, Ages 6-12; Repression of Drives ## Footnote sexual interests are supressed as children focus on developing social and intellectual skills

Question 66

Freud: Stage 5

Answer 66

Genital; Ages 12+, Mature sexual intimacy ## Footnote sexual interests reemerge and individuals focus on establishing intimate relationships

Question 67

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Answer 67

Individuals progress through these in order: the "crisis" at stage must be resolved to progesss to the next one.

Question 68

Erikson: Stage 1

Answer 68

Trust vs Mistrust, Ages 0-1, Developing a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, affection

Question 69

Erikson: Stage 2

Answer 69

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt, Ages 1-3, developing personal control and independence

Question 70

Erikson: Stage 3

Answer 70

Initiative vs Guilt, Ages 3-6, asserting power through directing play and social interactions

Question 71

Erikson: Stage 4

Answer 71

Industry vs Inferiority, Ages 6-12, coping with new social and academic demands, sense of comeptence

Question 72

Erikson: Stage 5

Answer 72

Identity vs Role Confusion, Ages 12-20, developing a personal identity and sense of self

Question 73

Erikson: Stage 6

Answer 73

Intimacy vs Isolation, Ages 20-40, forming intimate, loving relationships with others

Question 74

Erikson: Stage 7

Answer 74

Generativity vs Stagnation, Ages 40-65, creating or nurturing things that will outlast oneself after death

Question 75

Erikson: Stage 8

Answer 75

Integrity vs Despair, ages 65+, reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment or regret

Question 76

Watson: Behaviourism

Answer 76

* Emphasis on all behaviours are learning through interaction with environment * Classical Conditioning

Question 77

Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Answer 77

* Behaviour is shaped by reinforcements and punishments * negative vs positive reinforcement

Question 78

Bandura: Social Learning Thoery

Answer 78

1. Observation: learning occurs by observing and imitating others' behaviour 2. Modeling: learning new behaviours by mimicing models 3. Behaviour is influenced by the interaction of personal factors, behaviour itself, and the environment **Bobo Doll Experiment: demonstrated that children imitate agressive behaviour that is observed in adults ** ## Footnote Bobo Doll: - children divided into 3 groups and each group is shown an adult model behaving aggressively or non-aggressively toward Bobo - children are taken to a room with toys and their behaviour is observed RESULTS: - children who observed aggression were more likley to mimic it - boys more likely to mimic aggression than girls - children who saw the model REWARDED for aggression: more likely to mimic -children who saw model punished for aggression: less likely to imitate it

Question 79

Hostile Attribution Bias

Answer 79

Tendency to interpret other's ambigious behaviour as having hostile intent; can lead to increased aggression and conflict in social interactions ## Footnote EX: child assumes that another child bumped into them on purpose, leading to an aggresive response

Question 80

Oedipus/ Electra Complex

Answer 80

-child's unconscious desire for opposite sex parent and views same sex parent as rival -resolves when the child identifies with same sex parent ## Footnote Freudian; highly controversial

Question 81

Reciprocal Determinism

Answer 81

Idea that behaviour, congition, environment all influence one another (Bandura) ## Footnote EX: boy who likes violent video games starts hanging out with others like him and they encourage each other to play incraeasingly more violent video games and then start behaving aggresively IRL

Question 82

Role of Child Across Theories | Review of 4 main social theories

Answer 82

* Psychoanalytic Theories (Freud, Erikson): Views child as experiencing internal conflicts as they progress through stages that shape development * Learning Theories (Watson, Skinner): Emphasizes child's behaviour as a response to environmental stimuli, the child is more passive in these theories * Social Learning Theory (Bandura): Recognizes the child as active in observing and imitating behaviours from the environment *Social Cognitive Theories: Highlight the child's active role in interpreting and understanding social information

Question 83

Stages of Achievement Motivation ## Footnote Stages 1-3 with Ages

Answer 83

1. **Joy in Mastery**: Infancy to 2yrs, infants enjoy mastering new skills withoutb seeking external recognition 2. **Approval Seeking**: 2-3yrs, toddlers seek approval from caregivers for their achievements and feel pride or shame based on feedback 3. **Use of Standards**: 3+yrs, children adopt objective standards and exhibit pride or shame based on their own evaluations of success or failure

Question 84

Locus of Causality & Control

Answer 84

Internal Locus: attributing success/ failure to internal factors like effort and ability External Locus: attributing success/ failure to external factors like luck and task difficulty Internal Locus = associated with higher motivation and persistence ## Footnote Refers to an individual's belief about the extent to which they have control over events in their lives

Question 85

Strategies for fostering intrinsic motivation

Answer 85

* Provide opportunities for autonomy and choice * Offer tasks that are optimally challenging * Give feedback that emphasizes improvement over innate ability

Question 86

Dweck ## Footnote Entity vs Incremental Views of Ability

Answer 86

- Entity (Fixed View): belief that ability is a fixed trait, leads to avoidance of challenges and less persistence - Incremental (Growth View): belief that ability can be developed through effort, leads to embracing challenges and increased resilience

Question 87

Mastery vs Helpless Attitudes

Answer 87

Mastery orientation: focus on learning and improvementl; views challenges as opportunities to grow Helpless orientation: focus on performance and validations; views challenges as threats and may give up easily

Question 88

Dweck: Two Types of Praise

Answer 88

Person Praise: focuses on the child's traits & can lead to a fixed mindset and avoiding or quitting challenges Process Praise: focuses on the child's efforts and strategies & encourages a growth mindset and resilience ## Footnote EG: you're so smart vs you worked so hard on this

Question 89

Rhesus Monkey Study | JK JK JK need to look up way more

Answer 89

1. Rhesus monkeys are raised in environments designed to replicate natural habitats; examination of how early attachment experiences influence development 2. **Attachment**: Early interactions with caregivers significantly affected behaviours, etc: bold vs timid monkeys and how their rearing affects how they behave in challenging situations --> monkeys raised in relaxed environments ## Footnote Expirement: innate vs. learned personality traits of baby monkeys

Question 90

Carol Dweck Study

Answer 90

* children are given easy puzzles to complete and that is followed by praise * the type of praise affected their mindset (level of performance doesn’t matter) – person praise: avoid failure, avoid hard puzzles, overstate performance, self-esteem threatened by failure – process praise: seek challenge, honestly assess performance, self-esteem not threatened by failure ## Footnote Motivation and Praise Expirement

Question 91

Dunedin Longitudinal Study

Question 92

Nicaraguan Sign Language Study