DHUBS1 - Wk8-10 Flashcards
(72 cards)
1
Q
organs of the urinary system
A
kidneys
urinary tract: ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
urination or micronutrition
2
Q
kidney function
A
- excretion: removal of metabolic wastes form body fluids
- elimination: discharge of these wastes fomr body
- homeostatic regulation: of volume and soluate concentration of blood
3
Q
homeostatic functions of the urinary system
A
- regulating blood volume and blood pressure
- regulating plasma in ion concentrations
- healping to stabilise blood pH
- conserving valuable nutrients
- assisting liver
4
Q
about the kidneys
A
- bean shaped
- retroperitoneal
- protected by lower part of rib cage and three layers of supportive tissue
5
Q
what are the three layers of support tissue in the kidneys
A
- Renal fascia: dense connective tissue – anchor kidneys to surrounding structures
- Perinephric fat capsule: fatty mass protects kidneys from trauma
- Fibrous capsule: transparent layer; protection from infection
6
Q
about the adrenal glands
A
- two triangle shaped endocrine glads
- make hormones: adrenaline, nonadrenaline, cortisol and aldosterone
7
Q
internal anatomy of kidneys
A
renal cortex: outer region, contains nephrons
renal medulla: middle region, channels urine to renal pelvis
renal pelvis: inner region, drains urine into ureters
8
Q
the nephron - functional unit of the kidney
A
- Structural and functional unit of kidney
~1 million per kidney - Perform the processes to:
filter blood plasma
form urine - Consist of:
Renal corpuscle and,
Renal tubule
9
Q
renal corpuscle
A
consists of 2 parts
1. Bowmans capsule
2. glomerulus
function: to produce the filtrate, a protein free solution
10
Q
renal tubule
A
has 3 main parts
1. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
2. Nephron loop (Loop of Henle)
3. Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
11
Q
processes of urine formation
A
- Glomerular filtration
- Makes a protein-free filtrate that contains water, ions, nutrients and waste products - Tubular reabsorption
- Selective movement of valuable wanted substance from filtrate back into blood
- Glucose, amino acids, 99% of water, salt - Tubular secretion
- Selective movement of some unwanted substances from blood back into filtrate
12
Q
urine transport, storage and elimination
A
Ureters
- Pair of muscular tubes
- Transport urine from kidneys to bladder by peristaltic contractions of smooth muscle in walls
Urinary bladder
- Hollow, muscular organ
- Distensible can contain 400-500mL or urine
- Starts as thick folds, expands to become pear shaped
Urethra
- Conveys urine from body
13
Q
what is the pyelogram
A
x-ray image of urinary system
14
Q
what is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
A
= total amount of filtrate that both kidneys produce each minute.
15
Q
regulation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
A
Regulated by 2 mechanisms that ensure adequate blood flow to kidneys and normal filtration pressures:
- Intrinsic (autoregulation)- acting locally at kidney and involves the nephrons and,
- Extrinsic- acting from a distance e.g. autonomic regulation by sympathetic nerves and hormonal regulation initiated by kidneys
16
Q
what is filtrate?
A
= blood plasma minus blood proteins and blood cells
17
Q
what is urine?
A
filtrate minus water, nutrientes, essentail ions plus added wastes
18
Q
renal maintenance of blood pH
A
if pH drops - kidneys will secrere more H+ and retain more HCO3, to bring bakc blood pH to homeostasis
if pH increases - kidneys will retain more H+ and secrete HCO3- to bring blood pH back to homeostasis
19
Q
renal control of erythropoiesis
A
Erythropoiesis – production of red blood cells
Stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
Released by kidneys in response to hypoxia
20
Q
causes of hypoxia:
A
- Decreased RBC numbers due to haemorrhage or increased destruction
- Insufficient haemoglobin per RBC
- Reduced availability of O2
21
Q
production of red blood cells (erythropoiesis)
A
its controlled by a negative feedbakc mechanism
1. decreases oxygen levels in blood (hypoxia)
2. kindey “senses” hypoxia and releases an enzyme: renal erythropoietin factor (REF)
3. REF converts a plasma protein to hormone - erythropoietin
4. EPO stimulates red bone marrow to produce more RBCs to carry more oxygen
5. oxygen levels in blood return to normal
22
Q
what is the lymphatic system?
A
A network of vessels, nodes and lymphoid organs that collect, drain and filter interstitial fluid called lymph and return it to the venous system
- part of the bodys immune system
23
Q
organs of the lymphatic system?
A
- Lymph nodes
- Lymphatic vessels
- Bone marrow
- Thymus gland
- Tonsils
- Spleen
- Liver
24
Q
what are lymph nodes?
A
- Hundreds of nodes are found in almost all places in the body, including the elbows, groin, neck and armpits
- Lymph nodes act as the filter for the lymph fluid and lymphocytes, removing bacteria, viruses and other foreign substances
25
what is lymph fluid?
- a transudative fluid, transparent, yellow in colour
- Approx 10% of blood volume becomes lymph
- Formed when fluid leaves capillary bed
26
what are lymph vesselese?
- Transport lymph around the body
- Two systems: deep and superficial
- Deep: drain deeper structures of body
- Superficial: present in subcutaneous tissue, drain into deep vessels
- Right lymphatic duct: drains right upper quadrant
- Thoracic duct: drains everything else
27
what is the spleen
- Largest organ of the lymphatic system – a subdivision of the immune system
- Located in the left hypochondriac region
- Involved in both cell mediated and hormonal immune responses
- Site of lymphocyte proliferation
- Removal of old damaged erythrocytes
28
what is the thymus?
- an organ of the lymphatic system – a subdivision of the immune system, that functions in body defenses.
- Consists of two lobes located in the thoracic cavity and neck
- The site of T-cell maturation and specialization
29
what is bone marrow?
- Located within the medulla of long bones
- Bone marrow prodcues blood cells, including those required for immunity
- Like the thymus, responsible for maturation of immature lymphocytes
30
how does the plymphatic system work?
Three main functions
1. To circulate and regulate fluid levels in the body
2. To absorb fats from the digestive system
3. To defend the body against infection
31
drainage of the lymphatic system
- Large lymph vessels ultimately from the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct
- The right lymphatic duct opens into the right subclavian vein and the thoracic duct opens into the left subclavian vein
- The thoracic duct evacuates the lymph from more than two third of the tissue spaces in the body
32
types of diseases and/or disorders of the pymphatic system
- Hodgkin’s disease/ Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
- Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
- Lymphadenitis
- Lymphocytosis
33
what is lymphona?
- A neoplasm that initiates in the lymphatic system is known as lymphoma.
- It is the most important lymphatic disease.
- Hodgkin’s lymphoma affects B lymphocytes, a variety of white blood cells.
- People with Hodgkin’s lymphoma will have a certain variety of lymphocytes present in their blood called Reed-Sternberg cells.
34
what is immunology?
Study of physiological mechanisms which enable the body to recognise material as foreign and to neutralise, eliminate or metabolise them without injury to the host
35
what is the immune system?
- Fights disease-causing germs (Pathogens) and removes them from the body
- Recognises and neutralise harmful substances form the environment
- Fights disease-causing changes in the body, such as cancer cells
36
organs of the immune system
- Lymph nodes
- Appendix
- Bone marrow
- Tonsils and adenoids
- Thymus
- Spleen
- Payer’s patch
37
what are the three lines of defence in the immune system
- Physical and chemical barrier
- Non-specific innate responses
- Specific adaptive responses (acquired immunity)
38
the immune system
what is a pathogen and antigen?
Pathogen: an agent that causes or generates disease
- Micro organisms
- Parasites
- Foreign particles/substances:
Antigen: a substance that has the ability to provoke an immune response
- Foreign molecules
- Nonself/intruders
39
what is the thymus?
- T cell production, consists mainly of T lymphocytes
- Site where T cell receptor is rearranged, lymphocytes are educated, autoreactive cells are eliminated
40
what are tonsils?
- Organs in pharynx
- Filled with macrophages, B/T lymphocytes
- Respond to infectious agents that arrive via food ingestion or inspired air
41
what is Peyers patch?
Aggregated lymphoid follicles in small intestine and appendix
42
what is innate immunity?
The first and second line of defence
Nonspecific protection against foreign material cells
Relies on physical barriers and phagocytic cells to remove lower organisms and natural killers for viruses
43
what is the first line of defence?
The protective barriers of the body represents the first line of defence and prevent or retard the entry cells and molecules into the body.
suhc as:
- skin
- mucous membrane
- chemcial and environmetnal barriers
44
second line of defence
Come into effect when 1st line of defences breached
Includes:
- Inflammation
- Antimicrobial proteins
- Phagocytes
- Natural killer (NK) cells
- Fever
45
characteristic features of the second line
Acute inflammation begins within seconds to minutes following injury to tissues.
- Redness: due to vasodilatation and increased blood flow
- Heat: due to increased blood flow
- swelling due to increased vascular permeability
- pain: due to stimulation of the local nerve endings, from mechanical and chemical mediators
46
what is an antigen?
a substance that has the ability to provoke an immune response
47
what is an antibody?
- protective protein produced in response to antigens
- B cells produce antibodies.
48
what is the third line of defence
is the acquired immunity that is composed of humoral and cell mediated immunity
49
what is aquired immunity?
- Specific cells of the immune system recognise and respond to antigen
- Effectiveness of response towards an antigen increases following re-exposure to the samae antigen
- Acquired immunity is divided into humoral and cell-mediated immunity
50
what is humoral immunity?
involves the production of antibodies by B lymphocytes (B cells) to fight pathogens found outside of cells (extra cellular pathogens)
51
what is cell mediated immunity?
- T lymphocytes react to pathogens that live and multiply inside of cell to host
52
function of the respiratory system
- Gas exchange between air and blood
Pulmonary ventilation
Gas diffusion
Transport of gases in the blood
- Immune defence
- Sound production for communication
- Facilitation of odour detection (olfactory sense)
53
what are the two sections of the respiratory systme
- Upper respiratory tract: nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx and subpharyngeal portion of larynx
- Lower respiratory tract: infra laryngeal portion of larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs and alveoli
54
functions of the upper respiratory system
- Filtration
- Warming of air
- Humidification of incoming air to protect surfaces of lower respiratory compartment
- Reabsorption of heat and water form outgoing air
55
functinos of the lower respiratory tract
- Sound production (larynx)
- Preventing food form entering the trachea (larynx)
- Air movement (trachea, bronchus, bronchioles)
- Gas exchange (alveoli)
56
respiratory cell - pneumocytes
- Type I pneumocyte
Simple squamous epithelial cells
Gas diffusion
- Type II pneumocyte
Secretes surfactant
57
respiratory cells - epithelial
- Line exposed surfaces of the respiratory system
- Pseufostratified ciliated columnar epithelial
- Mucus (goblet) cells
- Stratified squamous epithelial
58
what is defence of respiratory system
- Respiratory tract susceptible to damage as in contact with environment
59
Particles and pathogens in inhaled air can damage the gas exchange surfaces in the alveoli : what are the 3 defences
Filter incoming air
Mucous escalator
Alveolar macrophages
60
what is gas exchange?
Exchange of gases between air and blood
- Occurs in alveoli via transfusion
- Simple squamous epithelium and large surface area of alveoli ideal for gas exchange
- Short distance between air and blood
61
what is respiration?
- Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): physical movment of air into and out of the respiratory tract
62
what are the two types of respiration
1. External respiration: all processes involved in exchanging O2 and CO2 with the interstitial fluids and external environment
2. Internal respiration: (cellular respiration), involves the uptake of O2 and production of CO2 within individual cells
63
what are the steps of gas exchange and transport
1. Oxygen enters the blood at alveolar-capillary interface
2. Oxygen is transported in blood dissolved in plasma or bound to haemoglobin inside RBCs
3. Oxygen diffuses
4. CO2 diffuses out of cells
5. CO2 is transported dissolved bound to haemoglobin or as HCO3-
6. CO2 enters alveoli at alveolar capillary interface
64
external respiration
At the lungs, diffusion of:
- O2 from alveoli to blood
- CO2 from blood to alveoli
At tissues, diffusion of:
- O2 from blood to tissues
- CO2 from tissues to blood
65
what is the respiratory rate
number of breaths per minute
66
what is the tidal volume?
Amount of air you move into or out of your lungs during a single respiratory cycle
67
what is the total lung capacity?
total volume of your lungs
68
what is gas diffussion?
- Movement of O2 and CO2 between air and the bloodstream, across the blood air barrier in alveoli
- Occurs via diffusion
69
transport of gases in the blood - two
O2 transportation
- Primarily bound to haemoglobin
CO2 transportation
- As bicarbonate ions
- Bound to haemoglobin in red blood cells
- Dissolved in plasma
70
what is the sound production for communication
Under voluntary control
Involves:
- Larynx: cartilaginous tube that surrounds glottis
- Glottis: narrow opening (“voice box”)
71
what is facilitation of odour detection?
Nasal conchae create circular air currents that bring olfactory stimuli up to the olfactory receptors.
72
two types of gas exchange
Internal respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between interstitial fluid and cells
- O2 moves from interstitial fluid -> cells
- CO2 moves from cells -> interstitial fluid
Cellular respiration
- Consumption of O2 by mitochondria and subsequent generation of CO2
