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digestive and respiratory system > digestive system > Flashcards

digestive system Flashcards

1
Q

six essential nutrients

A
  1. water
  2. carbohydrates
  3. lipids
  4. proteins
  5. minerals
  6. vitamins
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2
Q

which nutrients are macromolecules? (4)

A
  1. carbs
  2. lipids
  3. proteins
  4. nucleic acid
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3
Q

what are macromolecules

A

molecules that contain a large amount of of atoms and smaller chemical structures

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4
Q

minerals and vitamins functions/usefulness stuff (6)

A
  1. are NOT macromolecules
  2. essential to the structure and component of the cell
  3. key component to many chem reactions
  4. small amounts are needed
  5. enable certain reactions to occur
  6. help build bones and cartilage
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5
Q

difference between vitamins and minerals (1 (+1))

A

vitamins
- organic compounds
- serve as coenzymes

minerals
- inorganic

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6
Q

what are the four important vitamins

A

vitamin A,B,C,D

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7
Q

vitamin A (2)

A
  • “beauty” vitamin
  • skin/hair/nails and visual pigment (at night)
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8
Q

Vitamin b

A

energy metabolism

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9
Q

vitamin c (3)

A
  • bones and teeth
  • immune system
  • connective tissue
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10
Q

vitamin d

A

calcium absorption (bones, teeth)

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11
Q

4 common minerals

A
  • calcium
  • iron
  • iodine
  • potassium/sodium
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12
Q

calcium

A

growth of bones/teeth (rickets)

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13
Q

iron

A

blood hemogoblin (anemia

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14
Q

iodine

A

produce thyroxin (goiter)

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15
Q

potassium/sodium

A

nerve impulse (nerve disorders)

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16
Q

what is a blood hemogoblin

A
  • a protein in your blood cells that carries o2 to your body’s organs and tissues
    -transports co2 from your organs and tissues back to your lungs.
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17
Q

what is thyroxin (5)

A
  • a hormone that is made by the thyroid gland and contains iodine
  • increases the rate of chemical reactions in cells
  • helps growth and development
  • controls how much energy your body uses (metabolic rate)
  • involved in digestion, how your heart and muscles work, brain development, and bone health
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18
Q

function of water in the body (6)

A
  • controls body temp
  • enables living plants and animal cells to hold their shape
  • involves the transport of nutrients at the cell (level) through osmosis and diffusion
  • helps digest food
  • carries waste—- products resulting from body functions
  • major part if all body fluids
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19
Q

what are polymers

A

a substance or material consisting of large molecules called macromolecules

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20
Q

example subunit of the macromolecule nutrients

A

carbs: sugars, monosaccharides, and polymers of glucose
lipids: glycerol and fatty acid chains
proteins: polymers of amino acids
nucleic acids: polymers of nucleotides

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21
Q

main function of the macromolecule nutrients

A

carbs: energy storage
lipids: energy storage and cell membranes
proteins: cell function
nucleid acids: storage of genetic info

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22
Q

example molecule of the macromolecule nutrients

A

carbs: sugar, starch, glycogen
lipids: fats, oils, and phospholipids.
- (triglycerides, cholesterol
proteins: hemogoblin, enzymes, etc.
nucleic acids: DNA and RNA

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23
Q

disassembling macromolecules- dehydration synthesis (4)

A

monomers are joined by the removal of H2O, removing one OH from one monomer and the removal of H from the other at the site of bond formation.
- removing water
- involves enzymes
– needs energy

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24
Q

assembling macromolecules- hydrolysis (3)

A

monomers are released by the addition of a water molecule, adding OH to one monomer and H to the other.
- adding water
- involves enzymes

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25
Q

carbohydrates (4)

A
  • furnishes energy for: body functions, growth and fattening, reproduction
  • the largest part of an animal’s food supply (usually the roughage in the diet) and used first by the body for energy
  • includes sugars, starches, and cellulose
  • made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (+ glucose)
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26
Q

what is roughage

A

the indigestible portion of food the body cannot digest. it is used for keeping your digestive system clean and healthy, easing bowel movements, and flushing cholesterol and harmful carcinogens out of the body. basically to just help your digestive system funciton

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27
Q

monosaccharide (reducing sugars)

A

simple sugars, ratio of 1:2:1– carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

ex. glucose, galactose, and fructose have the same formula, but different structures

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28
Q

disaccharide

A

a combination of two mono’s through dehydration synthesis (loss of water)

ex: maltose, sucrose, lactose

opposite reaction is hydrolysis

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29
Q

polysaccharide

A

many mono’s

ex. starch, glycogen, amylose, and cellulose

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30
Q

glycogen

A
  • animals store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen (polysaccharide)
  • stored in liver and muscles
  • when glucose is concentrated in blood, glycogen is converted back into monosaccharide glucose units
  • used for energy
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31
Q

cellulose

A
  • contains many glucose; not a coiled structure. exist in flat sheets.
  • cannot be digested by humans (fibre/roughage)
  • holds water in large intestine, thus, helps eliminate wastes
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32
Q

testing for carbs (2)

A
  1. benedicts test: blue (copper) reagent turns orange/brick red when exposed to heat if reducing sugars (carbs) are present (HOT WATER BATH)
  2. starch test: iodine: red/brown. turns black in the presence of starch cus it mixed w the iodine
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33
Q

lipids (4)

A
  • concentrated source of energy (2.25x as much energy as glucose/carbs)
  • found in every cell in the body
  • made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
  • insoluble in water
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34
Q

what do lipids form

A
  • forms cholesterol, steroids, and other body compounds
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35
Q

what do lipids provide (4)

A
  • energy reserves
  • part of the cell membrane
  • insulation for the body
  • carriers of vitamins
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36
Q

what happens to the body when fat is absent from the diet

A

skin and hair conditions are affected

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37
Q

lipids when they are solid vs liquid

A

solid- fat
liquid- oils

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38
Q

triglycerides

A

formed after combining 1 glycerol (3C alcohol) and 3 fatty acids

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39
Q

saturated fats (5)

A
  • only single bonds
  • not easily broken down (fats)
  • from animal sources
  • solids at room temp
  • fats accumulate on arteries
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40
Q

phospholipids

A

phosphate group bonded to the glycerol backbone. cell membrane

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41
Q

waxes

A

long-chain fatty acids joined to long-chain alcohols

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42
Q

unsaturated fats (4)

A
  • double bonds
  • more easily broken down (oils-liquids)
  • from plant sources
  • reduce plaque build-up but high poly-unsaturated products may cause cancer (breast and colon)
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43
Q

testing for lipids

A
  • translucence test
  • sudan 4 dye test
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44
Q

proteins(4)

A
  • needed for growth and repair of the body
  • contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen
  • they are large macromolecules (polymers) that are made up of hundreds of amino acids chemically bonded together
  • made up of 20 different amino acids (ex: antibodies, enzymes, muscles, nerves)
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45
Q

proteins help form the greater part of: (4)

A
  1. muscles and internal organs
  2. skin, hair, wool, and feathers
  3. woofs and horns
  4. parts of the cell
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46
Q

what are chains of amino acids called and why

A

called polypeptides due to the peptide bonds

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47
Q

how many amino acids can the body not make? what is the general name for them

A

8 amino acids. they are essential amino acids

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48
Q

7 functions of proteins in the body? what is the example for each

A
  1. enzymes: pepsin (in stomach)
  2. storage of amino acids: albumins (in blood)
  3. transport: hemoglobin
  4. movement: muscle fiber proteins
  5. structural: collagen
  6. hormones: insulin
  7. protective: antibodies
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49
Q

formation of proteins

A
  • when proteins are made, a water molecule is released (dehydration synthesis). the covalent bond between the acid and amino group is a peptide bond. occurs in the ribosome.
  • amino acids are joined using peptide bonds; the order and type of amino acid determine the type of protein
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50
Q

draw a diagram of dehydration synthesis of proteins

A

do it

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51
Q

structure of proteins (2?)

A
  • polypeptides folded in a 3d shape, the structure is determined by the sequence of amino acids and determines its function
  • primary > secondary > tertiary > quaternary structures
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52
Q

denaturation of proteins (3)

A
  • heat, radiation, or change in pH will change the proteins shape
  • this changes its physical and biological properties
  • a permanent change in shape is called coagulation
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53
Q

testing for proteins

A

biuret test: blue reagent turns violent when peptide bonds are present

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54
Q

nucleic acids (3)

A
  • found in dna and rna
  • contain nitrogen and are processed by liver into uric acid (urea)
  • monomer of nucleid acids are nucleotides
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55
Q

nucleotides contain (3)

A
  • phosphate
  • sugar
  • nitrogen base
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56
Q

what are enzymes6

A
  • most enzymes are proteins (tertiary and quaternary structures)
  • act as a catalyst to accelerate a reaction
  • not permanently changed in the process
  • are specific for what they will catalyze
  • reusable
  • end in -ase (sucrase (sucrose), lactase (lactose), maltase (maltose))
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57
Q

how do enzymes work

A

work by weakening bonds which lowers activation energy needed for catalyzed reaction

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58
Q

what is the difference between primary secondary tertiary and quaternary protein stuctures

A

primary- a sequence of a chain of amino acids

secondary- hydrogen bonding of the peptide backbone causes the amino acids to fold into a repeating pattern

tertiary- 3d folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

quaternary- protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain

59
Q

enzyme-substrate complex step by step how enzymes work 3

A
  1. the substance (reactant) an enzyme acts on is called the substrate. A restricted region of an enzyme molecule will bind to the substrate
  2. a change in the shape of an enzymes active site. influenced (induced) by the substrate
  3. A change in the configuration (arrangement) of an enzymes active site (H+ and ionic bonds ae involved). induced by the substrate (induced fit)
60
Q

draw out substrate and enzyme binding step by step

A

od it

61
Q

what affects enzyme activity 3

A
  1. environmental conditions
  2. cofactors and coenzymes
  3. enzyme inhibitors (restrains, prevents)
62
Q

environmental conditions that affect enzyme activity

A
  1. extreme temp are the most dangerous. high temps may denature (unfold) the enzyme
  2. pH (most like 6-8 pH near neutral)
  3. ionic concentration (salt ions)
63
Q

cofactors and coenzymes that affect enzyme activity

A
  • inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins (respectively) are sometimes needed for proper enzyme activity.
  • ex: iron must be present in the quaternary structure (hemoglobin) in order for it to pick up o2
64
Q

what are the two examples of enzyme inhibitors and define the,

A
  1. competitive inhibitors: chemicals that resemble an enzymes normal substrate and complete with it for the active site.
  2. noncompetitive inhibitors: do not enter the active site but bind to another part of the enzyme, causing the enzyme to change its chape, which alters the active site.
65
Q

digestive system purpose

A
  • alimentary, gastrointestinal tract, or GI tract
  • unlike plants, heterotrophs must consume large organic molecules and break them down into smaller molecules that can be transported by the blood, absorbed into the body, and then used in the body
66
Q

process of digestion involves four distinct stages

A
  1. ingestion
  2. digestion (mechanical or chemical)
  3. absorption
  4. egestion
67
Q

ingestion

A
  • ‘eating,’ taking in food
68
Q

digestion two types and definition

A
  1. mechanical: physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces to INCREASE SURFACE AREA
  2. chemical: breaking of the bonds by enzymes to make something new
69
Q

absorption

A

movement of food particles into the blood

70
Q

egestion:

A

‘pooping,’ removing waste

71
Q

phys changes in mouth 2

A
  • food is torn into smaller pieces by the teeth
  • food is mixed with saliva
  • physical digestion begins here
72
Q

chem changes in mouth 2

A
  • saliva begins to break down carbs (starches)
  • chem digestion begins here
73
Q

phys changes in stomach

A
  • food, hydrochloric acid, and other digestive juices are mixed by the muscular contractions of the stomach wall to form chyme
74
Q

chem changes in stomach

A

proteins are broken down by hydrochloric acid

75
Q

phys changes in small intestine

A

muscles in the small intestines help the chyme or ‘food mush’ mix with digestive juices

76
Q

chem changes in small intestine 2

A
  • fats, proteins, and carbs are broken down into smaller, different molecules that can be absorbed by the body’s cells
  • most digestion occurs here
77
Q

phys changes in charge intestine

A

water is absorbed back into the body

78
Q

chem changes in large intestine

A

bacteria break down some undigested materials and help produce certain vitamins

79
Q

saliva definition

A

is a watery, slippery fluid produced by the salivary glands that contain the enzyme ‘amylase,’ which is responsible for chem digestion of starch

80
Q

amylase in saliva function

A

responsible for the chemical digestion of starch

81
Q

esophagus 2 (+0.5?)

A

a long, muscular tube that contracts in a rhythmic motion called peristalsis.
- these contractions push the food bolus toward the stomach and the remainder of the gastrointestinal tract

  • bolus: food that has been chewed and mixed with saliva
82
Q

gastrointestinal tract

A

a tract or passageway of the digestive system that leads from the mouth to the anus

83
Q

stomach 2

A
  • a j-shaped sac with a capacity of about 1.5L
  • the site of FOOD STORAGE AND DIGESTION
84
Q

what occurs after food enters the stomach from the esophagus

A
  • the esophageal sphincter contracts and closes, preventing the stomach contents from moving back into the esophagus
  • the pyloric sphincter regulates the exit of digested food into the small intestine
85
Q

what is the esophageal sphincter and pyloric sphincter

A

esophageal- a bundle of muscles at the top (upper) and bottom (lower) of the esophagus

pyloric- the other tube thing at the bottom of the stomach to let food out of the stomach into the small intestine

86
Q

what does the stomach secrete? why?

A

it secretes a number of digestive enzymes and gastric juices to help in the digestion of food particles.
- most food is not digested in the stomach, as enzymes don’t work well in low ph environments

87
Q

digestive secretions of the stomach 2 and their function

A

mucus- comes from the mucous cells. coats the inner lining of the stomach and protecting it from its own digestive juices

hydrochloric acid (HCL)- kills harmful bacteria in the stomach.
- also important in activating the protein-digesting enzyme, pepsinogen, to become pepsin. as a result, the ph of the stomach is about 1-2

88
Q

what is absorbed back into the blood in the stomach 2

A

it is where alcohol, some drugs (ex. asprin), and vitamin B is absorbed into the blood

89
Q

what is chyme

A

when food exits the stomach and enters the small intestine, it is now known as chyme

90
Q

small intestine 3 segments

A
  1. duodenum
  2. jejunum
  3. ileum
91
Q

duodenum 2

A
  • shortest and widest
  • ducts from the liver and pancreas join to enter the duodenum
92
Q

jejunum 2

A
  • middle section
  • contains more folds and continues to break down food
93
Q

ileum 3

A
  • last segment
  • contains fewer and smaller villi
  • absorbs nutrients and push remaining undigested material into large intestine
94
Q

what is villi

A
  • small finger-like projections from the interior of the small intestine. the surface of the villi have thousands of microvilli
95
Q

villi function

A
  • contain capillary networks to supply blood
  • absorb nutrients from the digested food
  • some of the nutrients are absorbed into the capillary network by ACTIVE TRANSPORT. other nutrients are absorbed by DIFFUSION.
  • only amino acids and monosaccharides can be absorbed here.
96
Q

villus capillary network. what is absorbed here

A

each villus is supplied with a capillary network that intertwines with lymph vessels called lacteals, where fats are absorbed,
- only glycerol and the 3 fatty acids are absorbed here

97
Q

draw and label the digestive system and the 3 parts of the small intestine

A

do it

98
Q

product, method of absorption, and site of absorption (in the small intestine) of the digested nutrient: sugars and starch

A

product: monosaccharide
method of absorption: active transport
site of absorption: capillaries

99
Q

product, method of absorption, and site of absorption (in the small intestine) of the digested nutrient: protein

A

product: amino acids
method of absorption: active transport
site of absorption: capillaries

100
Q

product, method of absorption, and site of absorption (in the small intestine) of the digested nutrient: lipids

A

product: fatty acids, glycerol
method of absorption: diffusion & diffusion > fat
site of absorption: lacteals

101
Q

method of absorption, and site of absorption (in the small intestine) of the digested nutrients: vitamins and minerals

A

method of absorption: diffusion
site of absorption: capillaries

102
Q

method of absorption, and site of absorption (in the small intestine) of the digested nutrients: water

A

method of absorption: osmosis
site of absorption: capillaries

103
Q

which of the 6 vitamins are absorbed in the capillaries of the small intestine?

A
  • starch and sugars
  • proteins
  • vitamins
  • minerals
104
Q

which of the 6 vitamins are absorbed by active transport?

A
  • sugars and starches
  • protein
105
Q

which of the 6 nutrients are absorbed by diffusion?

A
  • fat?
  • vitamins
  • minerals
  • water (osmosis)
106
Q

egestion 5

A
  • once food reaches the large intestine, colon, chemical digestion is complete
  • the large intestine then reabsorbs the water, minerals, and some vitamins
  • bacteria in the large intestine use waste minerals to make vitamins b and k.
  • undigested waste materials accumulate in the large intestine until a bowel movement is made
  • the bowel movement removes potentially toxic waste from the body and is stimulated by un-digestible fibrous material in the colon, such as plant fiber.
107
Q

what does the large intestine reabsorb

A
  • water
  • minerals
  • some vitamins
108
Q

how are vitamins in the large intestine made?

A

BACTERIA in the large intestine use WASTE MINERALS to make vitamins B and K

109
Q

rectum and anus

A
  • last section of the digestive tract
  • RECTUM is a holding pouch for feces
  • feces exit the digestive tract through a sphincter muscle called the ANUS
  • rectal veins are found near the opening
110
Q

what happens if rectal veins in the anus get inflamed? what is is called 3

A
  • the inside diameter of anus decreases]
  • passage of feces is difficult and painful
  • called hemorrhoids or piles
111
Q

draw a labeled diagram of the large intestine (8 components)

A

d

112
Q

the pancreas

A

pancreas- delivers 1L of fluid to the duodenum a day

113
Q

what are the two enzymes that break down protein in the pancreas

A

trypsin and chymotrypsin

114
Q

pancreas // proteins

A

proteins- trypsin and chymotrypsin are enzymes that beak down proteins

  • these enzymes are activated in the duodenum
115
Q

pancreas // carbs

A
  • the pancreas releases the amylase enzymes to continue with carbohydrate digestion
116
Q

pancreas // lipids/lipase

A
  • enzymes are secreted from the pancreas to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol
117
Q

what do pancreas release and why

A

releases bicarbonate ions to neutralize the stomach acids so they do not denature the pancreatic enzymes

118
Q

liver and gallbladder

A
  • the liver continuously produces a fluid called BILE that helps with fat digestion
  • this fluid is stored in the gall bladder.
  • fats in the small intestine stimulate the release of a hormone, cholecystokinin (CCK), which in turn triggers the gall bladder to release BILE SALTS
  • these bile salts act as an emulsifying agent (like soap), causing the fat droplets to be broken apart into smaller particles
  • the increased surface area produced by smaller droplets allows the lipase enzymes to work more effectively
119
Q

what fluid does the liver continuously produce? why? where is it stored?

A

produces fluid callded BILE

helps with fat digestion

stored in gall bladder

120
Q

how are fats related to the gall bladder? what does it result in

A

fats in SMALL INTESTINE stimulate the release of a hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK)

triggers the gall bladder to release BILE SALTS

121
Q

function of bile salts

A

bile salts act as an emulsifying agent (like soap), causing the fat droplets to be broken apart into smaller particles
- the increased surface area produced by smaller droplets allows the lipase enzymes to work more effectively

122
Q

other liver functions

A

the liver breaks down hemoglobin from red blood cells and stores the products in the gallbladder.
- the resulting pigments give feces its characteristic color
- storage of glycogen and vitamins a,b12, and d
- the liver also removes many toxins and harmful substances from the body (like alcohol)

123
Q

draw out the diagram of digestive hormone system as shown in slide 116 or pg 30

A

o

124
Q

most of chemical digestion happens in the small intestine USING:

A
  • carbs
  • lipases
  • proteases
  • nucleases
125
Q

what are lipases, proteases, and nucleases, carbohydrases

A

lipases: a pancreatic enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of fats to fatty acids and glycerol or other alcohols.

proteases: an enzyme that breaks down proteins and peptides.

nucleases: an enzyme that cleaves the chains of nucleotides in nucleic acids into smaller units.

carbohydrates: break down carbohydrates in several regions of the digestive system (ex. amylase)

126
Q

carb digestion and absorption

A

digestion
- starts in mouth- amylase
- stops in stomach
- starts again in duodenum

absorption
- monosaccharides are absorbed into blood (active trans) and taken into liver
- turned into glucose, used as energy

127
Q

protein digestion and absorption

A

digestion
- trypsin and chymotrypsin (from pancreas) are activated in the duodenum
- break down long chain polypeptides
- peptidase enzyme will then split up the amino acids

amino acids are absorbed by active trans into the small intestine to the liver

128
Q

pepsin function 5

A
  • enzyme responsible for the digestion of proteins. pepsin, secreted as pepsinogen, is activated by the presence of HCL
  • pepsin breaks down long chain amino acids into shorter chain polypeptides

‘but arent stomach cells made of protein?’
- pepsin is produced and secreted in an inactive form called pepsinogen
- which is then converted into the active form by the stomachs low ph
- this protects the cell from self-digestion (the part where it is secreted as an inactive form)

129
Q

fat digestion

A
  • bile emulsifies fat (phys process)
  • lipase (from pancreas) breaks it down into glycerol and fatty acids and is absorbed by diffusion
130
Q

nucleic acid digestion

A
  • in the small intestine, nucleic acids are digested by enzymes to make nucleotides.
  • absorbed into blood stream by active transport
131
Q

what are the digestive enzymes produced by pancreas 4 and fuction

A
  • lipase- digests fats
  • nucleases- digests nucleic acids
  • trypsin, carboxypeptidase, chymotrypsin- digest proteins
  • amylase- digests carbs into sugars
132
Q

peptic ulcers 5
- caused by what
- which causes what
- treatments

A
  • digestive disorder
  • are caused by breakdown of the protective mucous lining in the stomach.
  • this causes lesions (sores) on the stomach lining that are irritated by the acidic secretions in the stomach.
  • ulcers are caused by stress, diet, and the bacteria ‘helopbacter pylori’

treatments- medication or lifestyle changes

133
Q

acid reflux 4
- caused by what

A
  • digestive disorder
  • aka heartburn
  • is caused by the movement of gastric juices (acidic) back into the esophagus.
  • this usually caused by failure of the esophageal sphincter to close
134
Q

inflammatory bowel disease 4
- what is it
- can cause what
- treatment

+ another random disease

A
  • digestive disorder
  • inflammation in the intestines
  • can cause diarrhea and rectal bleeding
  • colitis- inflammation of the lining of the colon

treatment- meds or surgery

135
Q

what does the large intestine consist of

A

colon, rectum, anus

136
Q

gallstones
- causes what

A
  • digestive disorder
  • crystals of bile salt that form in the gallbladder.
  • these may block the bile duct, causing pain and impairing fat digestion
137
Q

jaundice

A
  • digestive disorder
  • yellow of the skin and tissues due to accelerated destruction of red blood cells
  • bile pigments are not excreted and accumulate in the body
138
Q

cirrhosis
- caused by what

A

-digestive disorder
chronic inflammation of the liver caused by nutritional deprivation or infection

139
Q

anorexia

A
  • eating disorder
  • morbid fear of gaining weight
  • distorted self-image
140
Q

obesity - canada stats, no saying what it is

A
  • eating disorder
  • in canada, over half of Canadians are overweight or obese
141
Q

which structure is responsible for the storage of bile

A

gallbladder

142
Q

which structure is responsible for the absorption of nutrients

A

small intestine 90%

large intestine 5%
stomach 5%

143
Q

put the three sections of the small intestine in orfer

A

duodenum
jejunum
ileum

digestive and respiratory system (2 decks)

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