Discourse analysis

Question 1

What do formalists focus on? What is the formalist analysis like?

Answer 1

Focus on how different units function in relation to each other without any regard to the context in which they occur.
The analysis of discourse at several levels in terms of different units, categories and relations (i.e. morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence)

Question 2

What do functionalists focus on? What is the analysis like?

Answer 2

Focus on how patterns of language are put to use for certain purposes in particular contexts and how they result from the application of communicative strategies.
The analysis of linguistic forms is interdependent with social life.

Question 3

What are the issues with the formalist approach to discourse analysis?

Answer 3

1) Units in which people speak do not always qualify as sentences
You can run a hou- whatcha- now whatcha you can- ran a house- you can run a house a- and do the job, which is important, y’ can’t y- a man can’t do it himself, and a woman can’t do it himself w- if y’ want it to be successful. In most cases
2) Grammatically correct sentences may sometimes be meaningless
Colourless green ideas sleep furiously (grammatically OK; meaningless)
* Furiously sleep ideas green colourless (grammatically wrong; meaningless)
Revolutionary new ideas appear infrequently (grammatically OK; meaningful)
* Infrequently appear ideas new revolutionary (grammatically wrong; meaningless)
3) Form and function do not always overlap
Are you free for lunch today?
You are free for lunch today?
Free for lunch today?
Lunch today?

Question 4

What is the fundamental distinction between the formalist and functionalist view?

Answer 4

The importance on grammatical form vs. discourse function. However, grammatical form and discourse function do not have to clash with each other, they can complement each other.

Question 5

How is language a product and process.

Answer 5

It is a product because it is an output which can be recorded and studied; it’s a process because there is a continuum of semantic choices

Question 6

What is context of situation?

Answer 6

It is shown in text, through a semantic relationship between the social event and the functional organization of language.

Question 7

When is a text a media of communication?

Answer 7

A text is a media of communication when it fulfils the 7 criteria of textuality- cohesion, coherence, intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality.

Question 8

Cohesion is…

Answer 8

It is the surface of a text; realized by surface links, which are grammatical features (pronouns, recurring phrases,…). This is a guide for understanding texts and a guide to coherence. Cohesion can be made difficult by ambiguity; understanding the same words differently in different contexts of situation.
Example:
If you’d like to give someone a phone for Christmas, there are plenty to choose from.

Question 9

Coherence is…

Answer 9

coherence interprets surface (cohesive) links and makes sense of them. It is created by the reader and depends on their experience and knowledge of the world. They must firstly understand the situation and then interpret it.
Example:
Claire loves potatoes. She was born in Ireland.

Cohesion:
Clare/she
Coherence:
Stereotypical ethnic association: Irish love potatoes

Question 10

Intentionality is….

Answer 10

is the intention of the speaker to produce a cohesive and coherent text, simultaneously transferring their ideas and thus achieving a communicative goal. Of course, the listener has to have some tolerance for the speaker, because of difficult circumstances that occur: spontaneous speech, ambiguity, grammatical uncertainty, intentional lack of cohesion and coherence….however, the listener may not accept the intended coherence.

Example:
“The distance between the vehicles in front of me was quite big. it might have been. 30 meters, because I already. because it was already dark.
–> is not cohesive, but intention is accepted

Question 11

Acceptability is…

Answer 11

(receiver oriented) is the listener’s readiness to interpret a text a cohesive and coherent, willingness to participate in a discourse and reach its goal, their ability to detect and understand what the participants’ goals are based on what they say, and the speaker’s ability to acknowledge the listener’s response as helpful or contrary to the plan of achieving the goal of a discourse. If you do not accept the text, that violates the principle of cooperation; textuality can be impaired.

Question 12

Informativity….

Answer 12

is the amount of and relationship between things that are informative and things that are redundant. Information theory is based primarily on the notion of statistical probability → the more possible alternatives there are, the higher the information value. However, this statistical probability can only be applied to non-natural texts (no spontaneous conversations and discourse, which is ignored). We process ordinary sentences more easily, and non-ordinary sentences with more difficulty.

There are three levels of informativity:
a) First order: trivial words, receive slight attention, usually function words.
b) Second order- normal standard for textual communication. Ordinary, frequent words.
c) Third order abnormal, infrequent words and patterns, require more attention and processing, problem solving from the receiver. If the receiver successfully familiarizes themselves with them, they are downgraded to the 2nd order.

Question 13

What is downgrading?

Answer 13

Downgrading is when a text moves in upwards or backwards on the levels of informativity. Example:
Example: reception of an enormous sum of money
Backward downgrading: think of past activities/actions (what did I do to get this money)
Forward downgrading: wait for an explanation
Outward downgrading: mistake – money intended for someone else (explanation)

Question 14

What are planboxes?

Answer 14

Plans frequently used in goal negotiation. They have to be appropriate for the situation and can escalate. Planbox escalation is a normal response to continued failure.
It goes from:
asking, invoking, informing, bargaining, threatening, overpowering and stealing. The goal is the minimum effort for maximum effect.
Example:
John wanted Bill’s bicycle. He walked over to Bill and asked him if he would give it to him. Bill refused. Then John told Bill he would give him five dollars for it, but Bill would not agree. John told Bill he would break his arm if he didn’t let him have it. Bill let John have the bicycle.

Question 15

Intertextuality….

Answer 15

links the text to previous familiar texts. Understanding a text according to the understanding of one or more previously encountered texts. Some texts are in continuous consultation with previous texts: parodies, critical reviews, rebuttals, reports, –>they refer to certain texts all the time.
Example:
Got apples?

Question 16

What are semiotics?

Answer 16

It is the study of signs systems.

Question 17

What is context of situation according to Malinowski?

Answer 17

Is the total environment, including verbal and situational environment of a communicative act.

Question 18

What is the framework of the context of a situation according to Firth?

Answer 18

He puts importance on the cultural background of language. The framework:
- The participants in the situation: status and roles of the participants
- The actions of the participants (what they’re doing, verbal and non-verbal)
- Other relevant features of the situation (surrounding objects and events)
- The effects of the verbal actions (how the participants change the situation by what they say)

Question 19

Field of discourse is…

Answer 19

a concept developed by Halliday that interprets the context of situation. The field refers to what the content of the communicative act is, the nature of social action, what it is that the participants are engaged in. Its linguistic features are shown through the metaphorical use of vocabulary and is expressed through the experiential function in semantics.
Example:
A recipe
Field: food and food preparation

Question 20

Tenor of discourse is….

Answer 20

a concept developed by Halliday that interprets the context of situation. It focuses on who is taking part, the nature of the participants and their statuses and roles and the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue.
Its linguistic features are grammatically realised through person and speech function (request, offer). It is expressed through the interpersonal function in semantics.
Example:
Mother daughter fight
Tenor: parental figure to child, personal relationship

Question 21

What is experiential meaning?

Answer 21

Is a function of language, linguistic function. It is the meaning of a sentence or text that is the expression of a process, event, action or state of a real world. It can be defined as representing patterns of experience.

Question 22

What is interpersonal meaning?

Answer 22

It is a linguistic function that deals with the process of social interaction. A sentence as an interaction between the speaker and the listener.
Example:
You there, bring me wine!

Question 23

What is logical meaning?

Answer 23

It is a linguistic function that deals with the relation between grammatical parts of a text; coordination/subordination; conjuncts, conjunctions, …

Question 24

What is textual meaning?

Answer 24

• Textual meaning: linking the text in question with the preceding text. (theme, information, cohesive relations

Question 25

What is reference?

Answer 25

Is a two-way relationship between contextual configuration (field, tenor, mode and text structure). There are three types of reference: Personal reference: personal and possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives Demonstrative reference: expresses different degrees of proximity in time and space. Realised by: demonstrative adverbs (here, there, now, then), demonstrative pronouns and the definite article. Comparative reference: degrees of similarity or difference. Realised by: adjectives and adverbs.

Question 26

Give an example of an endophoric and an exophoric reference.

Answer 26

An endophoric reference is either anaphoric (Sheila I great, I love *her*) or cataphoric (She's named Sheila) or exophoric when the source lies outside of the text. (*Everybody* loves New York).

Question 27

What is ellipsis?

Answer 27

Omission of elements normally required by grammar, but are obvious from the context. The structure has some missing elements, which can be retrieved from co-text or context. Can be either endophoric or exophoric. The children will carry the small boxes, the adults the large ones (endophoric) You label and I’ll stack. (exophoric) There are three types: - Nominal Nelly liked the green tiles; myself I preferred the *blue*. - Verbal A: Will anyone be waiting?- B: Jim will, I should think. - Clausal He said he would take early retirement as soon as he could and he *has*.

Question 28

What is a conjunction?

Answer 28

It presupposes textual sequence and signals a relationship between segments of discourse. The conjunctive role can be a single word (consequently), phrasal (as a consequence) or clausal. Certain conjunctions are used more frequently and may have different meanings: - He fell in the river and down the stairs- additive - He fell in the river and caught a chill- causal - I got up and made my breakfast - temporal - I’ve lived here ten years and I’ve never heard of that pub - adversative (but could substitute)

Question 29

Reiteration is achieved by... Substitution is achieved by...

Answer 29

restating an item by direct repetition, explaining it in different words and reasserting its meaning by different lexical relations. Example: The meeting *commenced* at six thirty, but from the moment it *began* it was clear it was not well. This can be achieved by: synonymy, antonymy; hyponyms/hypernyms; substitution is achieved by the replacement of one item with another. Substitution is a relation in wording rather than meaning. Substitution is the relation between linguistic items, such as words or phrases and can be either nominal; verbal or clausal.

Question 30

Lexical cohesion is achieved by...

Answer 30

By the selection of vocabulary. Usually, this is achieved by reiteration, which is done through: - repetition - synonyms (antonyms) (The meeting began at 6 but the commencement wasn't very smooth) - hyponyms/hypernyms (I'll take the chair, table and lamp- could you wrap up that furniture for me?) - general word (_the idiot's_ going to fall if he isn't careful) polysemy; metaphoric and idiomatic language (he's a pig) denotation (a dictionary definition) connotation (many words carry extra associations) dog> cute fluffy,/ playboy

Question 31

Textual patterns are

Answer 31

a way to classify the textual style and content. There are three larger textual patterns: 1. Problem-solution - Problem: concern, difficulty, dilemma, drawback, hamper, hinder, hindrance, obstacle, problem, snag - Response: change, combat (vb), .), come up with, develop, find, measure(s), respond, response - solution/result: answer, consequence, effect, outcome, result, solution, (re)solve - Evaluation: (in)effective, manage, overcome, succeed, (un)successful, viable, work (vb.) 2. claim-counterclaim common words: according to, apparently, appears, arguably, believes, claimed, consider, could, estimate, evidently, expected, forecast, imagine, likely, look, may, might, perhaps, potential, probably, reported, says, seems, should, signs, so–called, speculation, suggests, thought 3. Question-answer (Q should immediately be followed by A). Similar to problem/solution) example of one: Can I get the last croissant? Yes, go ahead.

Question 32

What is register dependent on?

Answer 32

- Context (text book, magazine, newspaper, …) - Assumption of the author about the readership (cultural, educated, tabloid readers) - Mode (written, spoken, written to be read aloud) - Mixed registers: pseudo-conversational register (Put ordinary exterior varnish on your door and window frames and in no time at all you’ll wish you hadn’t.)

Question 33

What is modality?

Answer 33

Refers to the way in which language can express various stances to reality or truth. It expresses the stance and the attitude of the sender. It is concerned with assertion, tentativeness, commitment, detachment and other aspects of interpersonal meaning. Grammatically, it is expressed through modal auxiliary verbs and other modal expressions: - Lexical verbs (appear, assume, doubt, look as if) - Adverbs (Actually, certainly, inevitably, possibly, probably) - Nouns and adjectives related to them (inevitable, assumption, certainty, possible, …) Example: It is possible for her to become president.

Question 34

What are some factors influencing the choice between spoken and written mode?

Answer 34

Face-to-face :is it desirable? Needed or not? [to save] face: potentially awkward/embarrassing for us or the receiver Permanency : do you want it written out (more permanent) Clarity in spoken mode things can be misheard, written clearer Competence: we may be skilled more in one medium Speed spoken is real-time, better for urgent matters Formality written in more formal Planning in written there is more time to play out what will be communicated Personal issues closeness of a relationship Social conventions the norms of interaction sometimes dictate the choice of medium

Question 35

What are some myths about writing and speech and how can we debunk them?

Answer 35

Myths about writing: - All writing is permanent (note on fridge) - All writing is formal (sms) - Writing is one way, speech is interactive (text messages interactive, poster less so) - Writing conveys important information, speech is personal and social (recipe: message oriented, weather forecast: message oriented) Myths about speech: - Not all speech is temporary (recordings) - Informal (oral presentation in school) - More interactive (lecture) - Used for conveying personal, social matters (weather forecast) - Spoken language is formless and featureless: - It has its own specific properties of organisation and linguistic features and is not meant to be written down (the transcription of speech is the reason some describe it as formless. Written language may not always sound OK when spoken (slovene: da in texts but never in real life)

Question 36

Compare lexical density of spoken and written

Answer 36

Lexical density is measured as the number of lexical items per clause. Written language has a dense while spoken language has a sparse lexical density. This is because spoken language involves repetition, which reduces density. Also, written language includes more low frequency lexemes which increase density.

Question 37

Discuss yielding in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson's model of conversational norms

Answer 37

- When more than one speaker is speaking, participants remedy the situation by one person yielding the turn to the other. When no one is speaking, one speaker begins to speak. The current speaker has 3 degrees of control: - Selecting by naming - Constraining by not selecting - Selecting left to participants

Question 38

Discuss starting in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson's model of conversational norms

Answer 38

- The next speaker knows when the current speaker has finished by points of possible completion or incidence of silence. Speech exchange systems (What sorts of conversations we know): - Turn-by-turn allocation (conversation): short turns, pressure from participants to speak - Pre-allocated turns (debates, interviews): longer turns with linked sentences, no interruptions

Question 39

Discuss keeping in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson's model of conversational norms

Answer 39

Techniques to keep speaking past the completion point - Utterance incompletor: (but, however) - Beginning with an incompletion marker (if, since) - Pre-structure a longer unit of speech (firstly, I’d like to make two points) - Rejecting interruptions by speaking - Loudly, quickly, in a higher pitch

Question 40

Discuss adjacency pairs in the Goffman, Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson's model of conversational norms

Answer 40

- Organised patterns of stable, recurrent actions that provide for and reflect, order within conversation - Class of sequence of turns: adjacency pairs - At least two utterances long; produced successively by 2 different speakers. They are ordered and related (only the appropriate second pair part can follow the first pair part). The first pair predicts the occurrence of the second - Sociological importance: provide a normative framework for actions - Linguistic importance: provide an environment in which inferences about relevance can be assigned across utterances. Provide a sequence in which expectations about form and meaning can be specified across utterances. The first order of adjacency pairs includes: - Questions, greetings, challenges, offers, requests, complaints, invitations, announcements The second order of adjacency pairs include: - Reciprocal greeting-greeting - Only one appropriate question-answer - More than one appropriate complaint- apology/justification

Question 41

Discuss transactions and exchanges in Sinclair and Coulthard's Model

Answer 41

Transactions have a structure expressed in terms of exchanges. Those exchanges which begin and end a transaction are boundary exchanges; those used in teaching are teaching exchanges and they can be: - informing (stating exchange) -directing (commanding exchange) -eliciting (questioning exchanges)

Question 42

Discuss Sinclair and Coulthard's model

Answer 42

It is a model which defined discourse on a new level with its own rank scale through the analysis of classroom interaction. These interactions followed a rigid pattern, teachers and pupils speak according to fixed perceptions of their roles. Talk conforms to highly structured sequences. It follows the sequence of: lesson -><-transaction <-->exchange<-->move<-->act

Question 43

What are moves in Sinclair and Coulthard's model

Answer 43

Exchanges are expressed in moves. Moves are made of either boundary exchanges: - frame: ok, well, right, now, good - focus: a meta statement about the transaction teaching exchanges: - initiation - response - follow up

Question 44

What are acts in Sinclair and Coulthard's model

Answer 44

moves consist of one or more acts. They have an interactive function. Elicitation: requests a linguistic response Informative: provides information 3 groups: -meta interactive (marker>framem meta statement>focus, loop>pardon, what did u say, ...) Interactive: informative- acknowledge elicitation-reply starter-comment accept-evaluate turn-taking: cue /bid(Raises hand)-nomination (yes, charlie?-reply (the sun is a star) -evaluation (yes, you are right)

Question 45

Compare the relationship between grammar and discourse rank scales

Answer 45

Discourse: lesson>transaction>exchange>move>act Grammar: paragraph>sentence>clause>phrase>word>morpheme In unmarked utterances, elicitation is realised by interrogative structures, directive by imperative and informative by declarative structures. (Shut the door!> directive realised by imperative) In marked utterances, different grammatical structures are used (Can you shut the door> directive realised by interrogative, declarative, moodles structures)

Question 46

What are the rules about interpreting utterances?

Answer 46

Rule 1: any interrogative is to be interpreted as a command to do if it refers to an action or activity which the teacher and pupils ought to have have performed or completed and has not been (have you done your homework?) Rule 2: an interrogative clause is to be interpreted as a command to do if it fulfils all the following conditions: > contains one of the modals can, could, will, would > if the subject of the clause is also the addresse > the predicate describes an action which is physically possible at the time of the utterance all three in one: Martin, could you close the window please? Rule 3: any interrogative is to be interpreted as a command to stop if it refers to an action or activity which is proscribed (forbidden) at the time of the utterance (Mike, would you stop annoying Betty?)

Question 47

According to Stenström’s model, a summons

Answer 47

is a move type which calls for the listener's attention. Example: Look now!

Question 48

According to Stenström’s model, a focus

Answer 48

is a move type that introduces the initiate. Example: *Well, I'd like to know what you're saying about this.* Are you saying it is impossible?

Question 49

According to Stenström’s model, an initiate

Answer 49

is a move type which opens the exchange. Example: A: * Did you read English or not?* B: Yes, I read English.

Question 50

According to Stenström’s model, a response

Answer 50

is a move type that continues or terminates the exchange. Example: A:Did you read English B: *Yes I did read English.*’

Question 51

According to Stenström’s model, a repair

Answer 51

is a move type which holds up the exchange. A: We've got to do a grand tour....B:*got to do what?'' - A:a grand tour!

Question 52

According to Stenström’s model, a re-open

Answer 52

is a move type that delays the termination of the exchange. Example: A: Shall we say…12 o’clock? B: Lovely *C: Right?* B: Yes.

Question 53

According to Stenström’s model, a follow-up

Answer 53

is a move type that terminates the exchange. A: shall I come earlier or at 4? B: No, I should come at four. *A: All right. *

Question 54

According to Stenström’s model, a bachannel

Answer 54

is a move type, which signals the listener's attention. Example: A: We reached a point we didn’t think we would be able to…and so… B: **that’s right** /*laugh* A: must tell these guys that we’ll carry on.

Question 55

According to Stenstrom’s Model of spoken interaction, an exchange

Answer 55

is the smallest interactive unit, comprised of minimally two turns that includes two different people. There are three types of exchanges: - Stating (longest turns) - Questioning (complex turn) - Requesting (complex turn) The reasons for this complexity in questioning and requesting exchanges are: a) they're often preceded by an introductory pre-exchange b)the answerer may need clarification of the before they can answer c) the is often followed by the questioner's evaluation of confirmation d) the speaker can end one exchange and begin a new one in the same turn (chaining) e) the complexity can be the effect of the speaker's roundabout way of structuring the message 1 Pre-exchange A: But you’re teaching at a grammar school, aren’t you? B: Yes, yes. A: Well, what d’you think about sex education? 2 Clarification: A: One wouldn’t have the nerve to take that one, would one? *B: What? That nude? A: Yeah.* B: Yes, well it’s sort of too … yes. 3 evaluation or confirmation: A: How long does it go on for? B: It goes on from 7.25 to 8.15 *A: That’s not too frightful* B: No. 4 Ending an exchange and beginning a new one in the same turn: A: So that the first week I had everyone coming in on me *B: Frightful. Why did you leave?* A: Mainly cos I’d been there two years. B: Mm. 5 Roundabout way of structuring the message: *A: Well ↗now. If this is a ↘fact* then it is a bore to go to some other part of the library which isn’t necessarily English …

Question 56

According to Stenstrom’s Model of spoken interaction, an act

Answer 56

signals what the speaker wants to say. There are three different categories: - Primary (can realise moves on their own) Example:/ A: Will you have another? B: Secondary:(accompany and sometimes replace primary acts, their position distinguishes primary from secondary acts) Example: follows primary act and gives hint: A: Where did you hear that? ** - complementary acts: (accompany but rarely replace primary acts) Example: assesses what the speaker himself says A: And don't ** believe all you read in the press.

Question 57

According to Stenstrom's model, a turn is.... When is a turn a non-turn?

Answer 57

a TURN is everything A says before B takes over and vice-versa. A speaker makes at least one interactive move and performs at least one communicative act. The size of the turns varies from one word upward. Turns can be either - simple: contains only one move - complex A: Well, look Ginny [summons]...Shall I take the picture? [initiate] -->complex B:Sure [response] -->simple A turn presupposes a shift in speakers. An utterance is produced while the other party goes on speaking can consequently not be regarded as a turn (say, backchanneling is not considered taking the turn) A: How was the wedding (T 1) B: Oh it was … it was really good. It was, it was a lovely day (T2) A: Yes (*) >B: and … it was a super place … to have it, of course A: Yes (*) >B: and we went and sat and sat on sat in an orchard at Grantchester and had a huge tea afterwards **(laughs)** A: **(laughs)** * Backchannel ** Overlapping > Continues talking

Question 58

In Stenström’s model, chaining is

Answer 58

an exchange pattern in stating, questioning and requesting exchanges. It initiates the first exchange and goes on to initiate the next. Example (stating): A: Not only is there a green light showing up a man walking, but there’s pip pip pip pip pip [Initiate] B: That’s true. I’ve come across those. I didn’t know what they were for. [Response] Ex 1 A: Well, that’s it. They’re for people with poor sight. [Initiate] B: Yeah. [Response] Ex 2 A: initiate-statement B response-statement >exchange 1 A initiate-statement B Response-statement > ex 2

Question 59

In Stenström’s model, supporting is

Answer 59

Is an exchange pattern in stating exchanges and it's when the dominant speaker is supported by [backchannels] Example: A: … and I was quite honest about it. I said, you know I haven’t used one for years and they said, you’re just the person we want because the person who hasn’t *used one* *B: *mmm** >A: has to have it all demonstrated *.* will understand the problem *B: *mmm** >A: *.* better than an expert *…* so I did the thing *B: *m* *m*.*

Question 60

In Stenström’s model, coupling is

Answer 60

an exchange pattern in questioning exchanges. It is when B responds to A and initiates a new exchange within the same turn. Example: A: Oh, and by the way, you didn’t try using your reading room ticket as a student card? [Initiate] B: No. [Response] Ex 1 Could I have? [Initiate] A: Yes. [Response] Ex 2

Question 61

In Stenström’s model, elliptical coupling is

Answer 61

an exchange pattern in questioning and requesting exchanges. It is when B's response is implicitly derived from the way B goes on to the new exchange. Example (requesting exchange): A: I’d like to be put on your mailing list, please. [Initiate] B: We don’t run a mailing list. [Response] A: Oh. [Follow–up]

Question 62

In Stenström’s model, embedding

Answer 62

is an exchange pattern in questioning and requesting exchanges. It is when A's initiating move is followed by a querying subordinate exchange before B terminates the superordinate exchange. Example (requesting) A: Can I speak to Jim Johnstone, please? [Initiate] B: Senior? [Initiate] A: Yes. [Response] embedded sequence B: Yes. [Response]

Question 63

In Stenström’s model, a transaction

Answer 63

consists of one or more exchanges dealing with one single topic; one or more transactions make up a conversation. They can be: - simple: consisting of a single exchange and are most likely to occur in brief face-to-face encounters, especially brief telephone calls where the caller leaves a short message, asks for info and makes a simple . Or they can be complex, which are usually intricate and long (general conversation). Remember! A turn does not always equate to a move, but can consist of more than one move! Example: A: Professor Clark asked if you were going to collect some scripts tonight, sound scripts. B: * ↘↗Yes.* ↗Yes? A: if you’d collect them from Mr. Gordon *who will be going to * the PLA meeting B: *Mr. Gordon?* Yes. A: ↗Right B: Yes.

Question 64

In the turn-taking system, taking the turn involves three sub-strategies

Answer 64

1. starting up (hesitant or clean start) Examples: a) taking the turn *A: Well, ɜ:m (.) I mean* that this is the most obvious example if they talk about unemployment (hesitant start) - A: *Well* what does he say … stick an initial label on the back. (clean start) - A: *Actually* I'm going to...well, to əm home. 2. taking over (this is when subsequent turns may be explicitly connected; triggered off by an in previous speaker's turn OR by a link Example: A: but I got a telegram last Friday saying that there was trouble afoot, you know. B: Yeah trouble a leg anyway Example: Links are conjuctions (and, but, cos) or conjuncts (so), that introduce a primary act together with which they form a move in a turn : A: Don’t misunderstand me, I’m very fond of Diana Dors. B: but