Distinctions and tools (relevant)

Question 1

Proper distinction

Answer 1

Consists of two or more terms.

The terms mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive of the domain in question

Question 2

Mutually exclusive terms

Answer 2

Terms are exclusive if no object in the domain falls under more than one term

Question 3

Exhaustive terms

Answer 3

Terms are exhaustive if every object in the domain falls under at least one term

Question 4

A priori

Answer 4

Acquired knowledge independently of experience

Question 5

A posteriori

Answer 5

Acquired knowledge in a way that depends on experience

Question 6

Analytic

Answer 6

A proposition is analytic if the meaning of its predicate is contained within the meaning of its subject, e.g. bachelors are unmarried, unmarried is within the definition of bachelor

Question 7

Synthetic

Answer 7

A proposition is synthetic iff the meaning of its predicate is not contained within the meaning of its subject.

Question 8

Word which is used

Answer 8

True, picks out a thing in the world for an argument

Question 9

Word which is mentioned

Answer 9

False, quotation marks, picks out a word in the language

Question 10

Subject

Answer 10

The subject is a word which picks out a thing in the world

Question 11

Predicate

Answer 11

A predicate says something about the thing picked

Question 12

Object vs property

Answer 12

Take a red chair. In this case, the chair is the object and the colour, redness, is its property.

Question 13

Object

Answer 13

Material object in the world

Question 14

Property

Answer 14

Descriptive features of the object

Question 15

Predication

Answer 15

The predication sense of ‘is’ is used to assert that something has an attribute. For example, ‘A raven is black’

Question 16

Identity

Answer 16

The identity sense of ‘is’ is used to assert that two things are the same. For example, ‘Edgar is a raven’

Question 17

Qualitative identity

Answer 17

a and b are qualitatively identical (strictly speaking) if they share all the same properties

a and b are qualitatively identical (in a looser sense) if e.g. they share all the same intrinsic or non-relational properties

Question 18

Numerical identity

Answer 18

a and b are numerically identical iff a and b are literally the same object

Question 19

Contingent

Answer 19

Contingent things are things that could be otherwise.

Question 20

Necessary

Answer 20

Necessary things are things that could not be otherwise

Question 21

De re

Answer 21

‘Concerning the thing’

Question 22

De dicto

Answer 22

‘Concerning what is stated’

Question 23

Reductio ad absurdum

Answer 23

To show that some thesis or proposition, called the supposition, is false. Give a valid argument from that supposition, with the addition of some additional true premises, for a false conclusion. But now you know that the initial supposition is false too. Since a valid argument preserves truth, if the supposition were true, the conclusion would have had to be true. But since the conclusion is false, the initial supposition is false too.