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higher BIOLOGY > DNA and the genome > Flashcards

DNA and the genome Flashcards

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1
Q

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

A

The molecule that contains the genetic instructions for life. It is composed of nucleotides and forms a double helix structure.

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2
Q

base pairing

A

The hydrogen bonding between specific nitrogenous bases in DNA. Adenine pairs with thymine (A-T), and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C).

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3
Q

nucleotide

A

The building block of DNA, consisting of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine).

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4
Q

sugar-Phosphate Backbone

A

The structural framework of DNA, formed by linked sugar and phosphate groups of nucleotides, running along the DNA strand.

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5
Q

Double-Stranded Antiparallel Structure

A

The orientation of the two DNA strands running in opposite directions (5’ to 3’ and 3’ to 5’).

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6
Q

double helix

A

The twisted ladder-like shape formed by two strands of DNA.

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7
Q

prokaryote

A

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus. Its DNA is organized in a single circular chromosome and sometimes plasmids.

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8
Q

Eukaryote

A

An organism whose cells have a nucleus enclosed within membranes, with linear chromosomes in the nucleus and circular chromosomes in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

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9
Q

plasmid

A

A small, circular DNA molecule found in prokaryotes and some eukaryotes, like yeast, which can replicate independently.

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10
Q

linear chromosome

A

The structure found in eukaryotic cells that contains tightly coiled DNA packaged with proteins.

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11
Q

circular chromosome

A

DNA that is circular in shape, found in prokaryotes, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and some eukaryotes like yeast.

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12
Q

DNA Replication

A

The process by which a DNA molecule is copied to produce two identical DNA molecules.

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13
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

An enzyme that adds nucleotides to the growing DNA strand during DNA replication, using complementary base pairing.

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14
Q

primer

A

A short strand of RNA or DNA that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis.

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15
Q

DNA Ligase

A

An enzyme that joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds.

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16
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A

A technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences through repeated cycles of heating and cooling.

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17
Q

Primer in PCR

A

Short DNA sequences that initiate DNA synthesis at specific target regions during PCR.

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18
Q

Gene Expression

A

The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize proteins, involving transcription and translation.

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19
Q

Transcription

A

The process of copying a DNA sequence into messenger RNA (mRNA).

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20
Q

Translation

A

The process where mRNA is decoded by ribosomes to produce a specific protein.

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21
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A

RNA that carries genetic information from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome, where it is translated into a protein.

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22
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

RNA that carries specific amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis, matching its anticodon with the mRNA codon.

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23
Q

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

A

RNA that, together with proteins, makes up the ribosome and facilitates protein synthesis.

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24
Q

RNA Polymerase

A

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.

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25
Primary mRNA Transcript
The initial RNA transcript produced by transcription, containing both exons and introns.
26
RNA Splicing
The process by which introns are removed from the primary mRNA transcript, and exons are joined together to form mature mRNA.
27
Intron
A non-coding region of an RNA transcript or the DNA encoding it, removed during RNA splicing.
28
Exon
A coding region of DNA or RNA that is retained after RNA splicing and is translated into protein.
29
Mature mRNA Transcript
The processed RNA molecule, after splicing, that contains only exons and is ready for translation.
30
Anticodon
A sequence of three nucleotides in tRNA that is complementary to a codon in mRNA, enabling the tRNA to deliver the correct amino acid during translation.
31
Codon
A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or a start/stop signal during translation.
32
Peptide Bond
The chemical bond that links amino acids together in a protein.
33
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds that folds into a functional protein.
34
Alternative RNA Splicing
The process by which different combinations of exons are joined together, resulting in different mature mRNA transcripts from the same primary transcript.
35
Protein Folding
The process by which a polypeptide folds into its three-dimensional shape, critical for its function.
36
Cellular Differentiation
The process by which a cell becomes specialized by expressing specific genes to produce proteins characteristic of that cell type.
37
Meristem
Regions in plants where stem cells are found and where differentiation into specialized cells occurs.
38
Embryonic Stem Cells
Pluripotent cells from the early embryo that can differentiate into all cell types of the organism.
39
Tissue Stem Cells
Multipotent cells found in adult tissues that can differentiate into a limited range of cell types for growth, repair, and renewal.
40
Pluripotent
The ability of a stem cell to differentiate into all cell types in an organism.
41
Multipotent
The ability of a stem cell to differentiate into a limited range of cell types related to its tissue of origin.
42
Therapeutic Uses of Stem Cells
The use of stem cells to repair or replace damaged or diseased tissues and organs.
43
Research Uses of Stem Cells
The use of stem cells as model cells to study disease development or for drug testing.
44
Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research
The moral considerations surrounding the use of embryonic stem cells, including concerns about the destruction of embryos.
45
Genome
The complete set of genetic material in an organism, including all of its genes and non-coding sequences.
46
Gene
A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein or RNA molecule.
47
Non-Coding DNA
DNA sequences that do not code for proteins but may have regulatory roles or be transcribed into RNA.
48
Regulatory Sequences
DNA sequences that control the transcription of nearby genes, ensuring genes are expressed at the right time and in the right amount.
49
Transcribed but Not Translated Sequences
RNA sequences that are transcribed from DNA but not translated into proteins, such as tRNA and rRNA.
50
A change in the DNA sequence that can result in no protein being made or the production of an altered protein.
mutation
51
A mutation that involves the alteration of a DNA nucleotide sequence due to the substitution, insertion, or deletion of nucleotides.
Single Gene Mutation
52
A type of single gene mutation where one nucleotide is replaced by another, potentially causing missense, nonsense, or splice-site mutations.
Nucleotide Substitution
53
A nucleotide substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid, potentially altering the protein.
Missense Mutation
54
A nucleotide substitution that changes a codon to a stop codon, resulting in the premature termination of protein synthesis.
Nonsense Mutation
55
A mutation at a specific site where introns are normally removed during RNA splicing, potentially altering mRNA processing and protein structure.
Splice-Site Mutation
56
A type of single gene mutation where one or more nucleotides are added into the DNA sequence, causing a frameshift mutation.
Nucleotide Insertion
57
A type of single gene mutation where one or more nucleotides are removed from the DNA sequence, leading to a frameshift mutation.
Nucleotide Deletion
58
A genetic mutation caused by insertions or deletions of nucleotides that change the reading frame of the gene, potentially altering every amino acid downstream from the mutation.
Frameshift Mutation
59
A mutation that affects the structure of a chromosome, which includes duplication, deletion, inversion, and translocation.
Chromosome Structure Mutation
60
A chromosome structure mutation where a section of a chromosome is duplicated, resulting in extra genetic material.
Duplication Mutation
61
A chromosome structure mutation where a section of a chromosome is lost or deleted, resulting in missing genetic material.
Deletion Mutation
62
A chromosome structure mutation where a section of a chromosome breaks off, flips around, and reattaches in reverse order, potentially disrupting gene function.
Inversion Mutation
63
A chromosome structure mutation where a segment of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome, which can disrupt gene function.
Translocation Mutation
64
The process by which organisms change over generations as a result of genomic variations and natural selection.
Evolution
65
The process where certain traits become more common in a population because they increase an organism's chances of survival and reproduction.
Natural Selection
66
A type of natural selection that favours intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes, reducing variation and maintaining the status quo.
Stabilising Selection
67
A type of natural selection that favours individuals at one end of the phenotypic range, causing a shift in the population's traits over time.
Directional Selection
68
A type of natural selection that favours individuals at both extremes of the phenotypic range, potentially leading to speciation.
Disruptive Selection
69
the transfer of genetic material between organisms in a manner other than through vertical inheritance (from parent to offspring), often seen in prokaryotes, accelerating evolution.
The transfer of genetic material between organisms in a manner other than through vertical inheritance (from parent to offspring), often seen in prokaryotes, accelerating evolution.Horizontal Gene Transfer
70
The transmission of genetic material from parent to offspring during reproduction.
Vertical Gene Transfer
71
The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution, occurring when populations are isolated and undergo mutation and selection.
The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution, occurring when populations are isolated and undergo mutation and selection.Speciation
72
A physical, behavioral, or ecological factor that prevents gene flow between sub-populations, leading to speciation
Isolation Barrier
73
Speciation that occurs when populations of a species become geographically isolated, preventing gene flow and leading to divergence.
Speciation that occurs when populations of a species become geographically isolated, preventing gene flow and leading to divergence.Allopatric Speciation
74
Speciation that occurs within the same geographic area, often due to behavioral or ecological barriers preventing gene flow.
Sympatric Speciation
75
Genomic SequencingThe process of determining the nucleotide sequence of the entire genome of an organism or specific genes, allowing for comparison and study of genetic material.
Genomic Sequencing
76
The study of evolutionary relationships among species, using genetic, morphological, and molecular data to construct evolutionary trees.
Phylogenetics
77
A method that uses mutation rates in DNA to estimate the time that two species have been evolving independently
Molecular Clock
78
Genes that have remained largely unchanged throughout evolution, indicating their essential role and the evolutionary pressure to maintain them.
Conserved Genes
79
The three major categories of life based on genetic characteristics: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes.
The three major categories of life based on genetic characteristics: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes.Domains of Life
80
The process of analyzing an individual's genome to predict the likelihood of developing certain diseases, based on genetic markers and variants.
Disease Prediction via Genome Analysis

higher BIOLOGY (3 decks)

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