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Genetics > DNA, RNA, and Proteins > Flashcards

DNA, RNA, and Proteins Flashcards

1
Q

what did Friedrich Mieschner do?

A

discovered nuclein by isolating phosphate-rich chemicals from the nuclei of white blood cells in pus

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2
Q

what 2 experiments proved DNA to be the hereditary material?

A

Avery’s transformed infectious bacteria, Hershey and Chase’s injection of DNA into a host cell to make new viruses

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3
Q

what 3 experiments on bacterial transformation proved DNA to be the substance of genes?

A
  1. Griffith
  2. Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty
  3. Hershey and Chase
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4
Q

describe the Griffith experiment

A
  1. took 2 types of bacteria; virulent (s) and nonvirulent (r)
  2. (s) kills mice, (r) does not
  3. (s) mutates to (r) form, does not kill mice anymore
  4. (s) heated, doesn’t kill
  5. heat-killed (s) revived by combining with (r), kills mice, and living (s) form found in autopsy
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5
Q

describe the Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty experiment

A

took Griffith further

  1. took living (r) form, combined with heat-killed (s) form in a medium, over time found only living (s) form
  2. added protease, RNase, and used ultracentrifguation, but still found living (s) form
  3. added DNase, (s) not found, showing that DNA is dominant
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6
Q

describe the Hershey and Chase experiment

A

provided convincing evidence that DNA is the genetic material
-bacteria injected with their phage would replicate only the changed phage DNA

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7
Q

what is Chargaff’s rule?

A

the ratios of A and T are 1:1, and the ratios of G and C are 1:1

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8
Q

when did Watson and Crick propose their double helix model?

A

1953

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9
Q

what did Rosalind Franklin do?

A

photographed DNA molecule using X-ray crystallogrophy

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10
Q

what did Franklin’s DNA picture show?

A

that DNA is a coil with a constant diameter of 2nm

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11
Q

what is the blueprint for all life?

A

DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid

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12
Q

and is a karyotype?

A

a picture of all an organisms’ chromosomes

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13
Q

how many chromosomes does a human have?

A

46

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14
Q

how many chromosomes does a dog have?

A

78

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15
Q

how many chromosomes does a cat have?

A

38

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16
Q

how many chromosomes do cattle have?

A

60

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17
Q

how many chromosomes does a goat have?

A

60

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18
Q

how many chromosomes does a sheep have?

A

54

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19
Q

how many chromosomes does a horse?

A

64

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20
Q

how many chromosomes does a donkey have?

A

62

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21
Q

how many chromosomes does a chicken have?

A

78

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22
Q

how many chromosomes does a turkey have?

A

80

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23
Q

how many chromosomes do camels, alpaca, and llamas have?

A

74

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24
Q

how many chromosomes does a rabbit have?

A

40

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25
Q

how many chromosomes does a rat have?

A

38

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26
Q

DNA is a polymer of?

A

nucleotides

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27
Q

each nucleotide is composed of?

A
  1. 5-carbon sugar
  2. phosphate
  3. nitrogenous base
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28
Q

list the 4 nitrogenous bases?

A
  1. adenine
  2. thymine
  3. guanine
  4. cytosine
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29
Q

list the purine bases (double ringed)

A
  1. adenine

2. guanine

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30
Q

list the pyrimidine bases (single ringed)

A
  1. cytosine

2. thymine

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31
Q

adenine pairs with thymine in what kind of bond?

A

double

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32
Q

cytosine pairs with guanine in what kind of bond?

A

triple

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33
Q

in DNA replication, nucleotides come together to make a new strand that is ____ to the old strand?

A

complimentary

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34
Q

the new double strand formed in DNA replication is a ____ to the old double strand?

A

duplicate

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35
Q

how is DNA replicated?

A

semi-conservative replication

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36
Q

is there only one form of the DNA double helix?

A

no, it can assume alternative forms

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37
Q

in what 4 organisms are DNA molecules circular instead of linear?

A
  1. prokaryotes
  2. mitochondria
  3. chloroplasts
  4. viruses
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38
Q

what kind of viruses carry single-stranded DNA?

A

bacteriophages

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39
Q

what virus carries RNA?

A

AIDS

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40
Q

list the 4 requirements for DNA to be the genetic material

A
  1. must carry information
  2. must replicate
  3. must allow for information to change, or mutate
  4. must govern the expression of the phenotype
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41
Q

where does DNA replication take place?

A

in the nucleus

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42
Q

what produces semiconservative replication?

A

complimentary base pairing

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43
Q

in DNA replication, what happens to the double helix?

A

it unwinds and each strand acts as a template

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44
Q

what does complimentary base pairing ensure?

A

that T signals the addition of A on new strand, and G signals addition of C

45
Q

how many daughter helices are produced after replication?

A

2

46
Q

in replication, what does Pol III do?

A

produces new strands of complimentary DNA

47
Q

in replication, what does Pol I do?

A

fills in gaps between newly synthesized Okazaki fragments

48
Q

in replication, what does DNA helicase do?

A

unwinds double helix

49
Q

in replication, what do single stranded binding proteins do?

A

keep helix open- the exact opposite of bind actually

50
Q

in replication, what does primase do?

A

creates RNA primers to initiate synthesis

51
Q

in replication, what does ligase do?

A

welds together Okazaki fragments

52
Q

where does DNA replication begin?

A

at the origin of replication

53
Q

how many origins of replication are there?

A

can be multiple, up to 100,000 in complex organisms, but most bacteria only have 1

54
Q

what is the replication bubble?

A

the area where DNA helices are unwound and replication takes place

55
Q

what is the replication fork?

A

the active area where replication takes place

56
Q

what establishes the RNA primers in replication?

A

primase

57
Q

what holds open the unwound strands of DNA during replication?

A

single-stranded binding proteins

58
Q

what joins Okazaki fragments into a continuous strand after the removal of primers in replication?

A

DNA ligase

59
Q

what kind of replication occurs on the leading strand?

A

continuous

60
Q

what kind of replication occurs on the lagging strand?

A

discontinuous

61
Q

what direction does replication move in?

A

bidirectional, the replication forks move in opposite directions

62
Q

what do telomeres do in linear chromosomes during replication?

A

ensure the maintenance and accurate replication of chromosome ends

63
Q

how many origins of replication are in circular chromosomes, such as E. coli?

A

only one

64
Q

what can unwinding and replication do to circular chromosomes, and what problems may that cause?

A

supercoiling, which may impede replication

65
Q

what is topoisomerase?

A

an enzyme that relaxes supercoils by nicking strands

66
Q

what is the basis for repair of errors that occur during replication or storage?

A

redundancy, more than one codon can code for the same amino acid

67
Q

are errors during replication common?

A

no, they’re rare

68
Q

what is recombination?

A

when homologs physically break, exchange parts, and rejoin, creating reciprocal products

69
Q

where can recombination occur?

A

anywhere along the DNA molecule

70
Q

what prevents mutations from occurring during the recombination process?

A

precision in the exchange of genetic information

71
Q

what does the Watson-Crick model show?

A

that DNA is a double helix composed of 2 antiparallel strands of nucleotides

72
Q

in what order does DNA carry information?

A

in the sequence of its bases

73
Q

list the 5 steps of DNA replication, including enzyme function

A
  1. helicases unwind the parental double helix
  2. single-stranded binding proteins stabilize the unwound parental DNA
  3. the leading strand in synthesized continuously in the 5’ to 3’ direction by DNA polymerase
  4. the lagging strand is synthesized discontinuously. Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer, which is extended by DNA polymerase to form an Okazaki fragment
  5. After the RNA primer is replaced by DNA, DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragment to the growing strand
74
Q

what does RNA stand for?

A

ribonucleic acid

75
Q

how is RNA similar to DNA

A

it has repeating subunits, nucleotides

76
Q

what are the 4 main differences between RNA and DNA?

A
  1. RNA contains ribose instead of deoxyribose in its nucleotides
  2. adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine like DNA
  3. RNA is single stranded and shorter
  4. RNA is less stable than DNA, and doesn’t persist in the cell for very long, whereas DNA can persist for the life of the cell
77
Q

what is the central dogma of molecular biology?

A

DNA to RNA: transcription

RNA to proteins: translation

78
Q

what are the 3 different RNA molecules involved in protein synthesis?

A
  1. mRNA
  2. rRNA
  3. tRNA
79
Q

what is transcription?

A

RNA synthesis from DNA

80
Q

where does transcription occur?

A

in the nucleus

81
Q

where does mRNA carry the message about what type of protein to make?

A

from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome outside the nucleus

82
Q

what is the only difference between the transcribed RNa sequence from the DNA sequence?

A

the RNA sequence contains uracil instead of thymine

83
Q

how is mRNA synthesized from DNA?

A

base pairing

84
Q

how does DNA unwind?

A

in sections

85
Q

what does RNA polymerase do in transcription?

A

attaches at the promoter sequence of DNA and moves along the DNA, unzipping the strands, allowing for more mRNA molecules to be formed

86
Q

what is formed during transcription as a complimentary copy of a region one on strand of the DNA molecule?

A

a molecule of messenger RNA

87
Q

list and describe the 3 modifications that initial mRNA goes through before leaving the nucleus?

A
  1. capping: addition of a 7 methylguanosine cap on the 5’ end prevents mRNA from degradation outside the nucleus
  2. poly-A tail: polyadenylation on the 3’ end stabilized mRNA
  3. intron splicing: removes the noncoding segments from the mRNA strand and leaves the exons, or coding segments to leave the nucleus
88
Q

what is a codon?

A

each 3 consecutive bases on the mRNA is a code word, or codon, that specifies an amino acid

89
Q

how many codons make up the genetic code?

A

64

90
Q

what 3 codons act as signal terminators?

A

UGA, UAG, UAA

91
Q

what codon codes for both methionine and is also the START signal for translation?

A

AUG (school starts in august)

92
Q

how many amino acids are there in all life forms?

A

20

93
Q

what are amino acids?

A

the bricks or building blocks that make all proteins

94
Q

what is translation?

A

synthesizing a protein from amino acids according to the sequences of the nucleotides in mRNA

95
Q

where does translation occur?

A

at the ribosome in the cytoplasm of the cell

96
Q

what type of RNA is needed for protein synthesis?\ and what does it do?

A

rRNA, ribosomal RNA; helps mRNA bind to the SMALL subunit of the ribosome

97
Q

what is tRNA?

A

transfer RNA; brings specific amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled as proteins, 80 nucleotides long

98
Q

what does ribosomal RNA join with to make ribosomes?

A

a bunch of proteins

99
Q

what is the site of protein synthesis?

A

ribosomes

100
Q

what do ribosomes consist of?

A

a large subunit and a small subunit that mRNa binds to

101
Q

list the 6 steps of translation

A
  1. mRNA leaves the nucleus and migrates to the ribosome
  2. mRNA binds to the SMALL ribosomal subunit
  3. tRNA brings an amino acid to the ribosome, where the anticodon on the tRNA binds to the codon of the mRNA
  4. the amino acid bonds to its adjoining amino acid to form a growing polypeptide molecule
  5. the tRNA without the amino acid is released from the ribosome
  6. other tRNA’s bring amino acids to the ribosome to complete the protein molecule
102
Q

where does protein synthesis occur?

A

in the cytoplasm of the cell

103
Q

what are the repeating subunits of protein molecules?

A

amino acids

104
Q

why is the order of amino acids important?

A

it determines the 3D shape of the molecule, and the protein function

105
Q

what are mutations?

A

changes in the DNA sequence that may be passed along to future generations; not always bad

106
Q

what are point mutations?

A

a single base substitution

107
Q

what are frame-shift mutations?

A

modifications of the reading frame after a deletion or insertion, resulting in all codons downstream being different

108
Q

what are the 2 types of frameshift mutations?

A
  1. deletion: a small DNA segment is lost
  2. insertion: a segment of DNA is added
    both change the entire sequence

Genetics (8 decks)

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