Ekoloogia Ekosystemov Flashcards
(183 cards)
1
Q
Aká je definícia ekosystému?
A
Základná funkčná jednotka prírody pozostávajúca z biocenózy a biotopu
Ekosystém je definovaný ako funkčný systém živých (biocenóza) a neživých (biotop) zložiek životného prostredia, vzájomne prepojených výmenou materiálov, tokom energie a prenosom informácií.
2
Q
What are the main properties of an ecosystem?
A
- Stability (homeostatic mechanisms)
- Independence (autarky)
- Self-regulation
These properties ensure the ecosystem can maintain its functions and interactions over time.
3
Q
Who first used the term ‘ecosystem’?
A
Arthur Tansley in 1935
Tansley introduced the term in his article ‘The Use and Abuse of Vegetational Concepts and Terms’.
4
Q
What is a microecosystem?
A
A small simplified experimental ecosystem established in the field or laboratory
Microecosystems can be derived directly from nature or created from axenic cultures.
5
Q
What does the General System Theory propose?
A
It proposes that interactions among elements lead to changes in the entire system
Developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy, it emphasizes the interdependence and connectivity of system components.
6
Q
What is an emergent property in an ecosystem?
A
A property that arises from the interactions within the ecosystem and does not belong to any single component
Examples include stability and resilience.
7
Q
Define stability in the context of ecosystems.
A
The ability of an ecosystem to survive without external interventions due to self-regulatory mechanisms
Stability involves dynamic oscillation around an equilibrium state influenced by environmental conditions.
8
Q
What are the two mechanisms of stability in ecosystems?
A
- Resistance
- Resilience
Resistance refers to the ecosystem’s ability to remain unchanged, while resilience is its capacity to return to its original state after disturbances.
9
Q
What is homeostasis?
A
The tendency of a system to resist change and maintain equilibrium
In organisms, this involves maintaining stable internal conditions necessary for survival.
10
Q
What does homeorhesis refer to?
A
The tendency of living systems to maintain a spontaneous movement along a certain trajectory
This concept involves the system’s response to disturbances and its efforts to achieve long-term stability.
11
Q
What is lability in ecological terms?
A
The opposite of stability, indicating ecological instability
It reflects the system’s tendency towards decreased resilience and increased susceptibility to disturbances.
12
Q
What is a biotope?
A
The abiotic environment in which a biocenosis develops and with which it interacts
It is characterized by local abiotic factors such as climate, soil, and water conditions.
13
Q
What is a biocenosis?
A
A heterotypic community of populations of different species that interact with one another
It maintains a dynamic equilibrium with its abiotic environment (biotope).
14
Q
What are biocenotic principles?
A
- Diversity of habitat conditions affects species richness
- Deviations from optimal conditions reduce species richness
- Stability increases with more stable habitat conditions
These principles highlight the relationships between habitat conditions and biodiversity.
15
Q
What is Elton’s conventional view on ecosystem stability?
A
Ecosystem stability increases with higher biodiversity
Elton suggested that ecosystems with greater species diversity are more resilient to disturbances.
16
Q
What do May’s models of system stability compare?
A
The influence of species number (S) and connectivity (C) on ecosystem stability
Robert May’s equation suggests that as species number increases, stability may decrease due to fewer interactions.
17
Q
What does connectivity in ecosystems refer to?
A
The interconnection of elements within an ecosystem
It is a key aspect of May’s stability equation.
18
Q
What is compartmentalization in ecosystems?
A
Formation of smaller, independent trophic subsystems capable of self-sustenance
High compartmentalization contributes to ecosystem stability by fostering strong ecological relationships within compartments.
19
Q
What is compartmentalization in an ecosystem?
A
Formation of smaller, separate trophic (sub)systems capable of trophic self-sufficiency
A stable ecosystem has many compartments with strong ecological relationships within but weak ones between them.
20
Q
How does the bottom-up effect influence ecosystem stability?
A
Increased primary production leads to an increase in primary and secondary consumers
Example: Minerals/nutrients → phytoplankton → primary consumer (zooplankton) → secondary consumer (fish).
21
Q
What is the top-down effect in an ecosystem?
A
Predators maintain balance/control in the system
This effect highlights the role of apex predators in ecosystem dynamics.
22
Q
Define population in an ecological context.
A
A homotypic group of individuals of one species inhabiting a certain space
A population cannot consist of individuals from multiple species.
23
Q
What are the basic demographic characteristics of a population?
A
Dispersion, density, natality, mortality, structure
These characteristics are crucial for studying population dynamics.
24
Q
What is dispersion in ecology?
A
The distribution of individuals of a population in space
Dispersion can be uniform, random, or clustered.
25
List the three types of dispersion.
* Uniform
* Random
* Clustered
26
What is density in ecological terms?
The number of individuals per unit area or volume
## Footnote
Density can be expressed in grams of dry mass or joules per square meter.
27
What is natality?
The number of new individuals produced per unit time
## Footnote
Natality rates change based on environmental conditions and population composition.
28
Differentiate between ecological and absolute natality.
Ecological natality is variable; absolute natality is the theoretical maximum under ideal conditions
## Footnote
Ecological natality reflects real-world conditions, while absolute natality represents potential.
29
Define mortality in ecological terms.
The number of dead individuals per unit time as a proportion of the population
## Footnote
Similar to natality, there is both realized and theoretical mortality.
30
What are the phases of population growth?
* Lag phase
Progradacia
* Log phase
Kulminacia
* retrogradacia
31
What is a J-shaped growth curve?
Characterized by a rapid, unrestrained exponential growth followed by a sharp decline
## Footnote
Common in species with a single generation per year.
32
What does carrying capacity refer to in ecology?
The maximum number of individuals that an environment can sustain
## Footnote
This concept is critical for understanding population dynamics and resource availability.
33
What is the significance of intra-specific interactions?
They influence population dynamics and behavior
## Footnote
These interactions include competition, cooperation, and social structures.
34
Fill in the blank: The number of individuals in a population per unit area is called _______.
[density]
35
True or False: A population can consist of individuals from multiple species.
False
## Footnote
A population is defined by individuals of a single species.
36
What are the phases of population dynamics?
1. Navýšenie populácie 2. Gradácia / log fáza 3. Kulminácia 4. Retrogradácia
37
Define 'odpor prostredia' in population dynamics.
Represents the difference between exponential and deterministic curves, where increasing resistance limits reproduction dynamics
38
What are the types of intra-specific interactions?
1. Synergistic (positive, supportive) 2. Antagonistic (negative, inhibiting)
39
What is intra-specific competition?
Negative interactions among individuals of the same species competing for limited resources
40
List some limited resources that individuals of the same species compete for.
* Food * Water * Space * Light * Mates * Shelter
41
Why is intra-specific competition usually stronger than inter-specific competition?
Individuals of the same species share very similar resource needs
42
What happens when resources are not limited in a population?
Individuals do not compete, and the population grows exponentially
43
What is the carrying capacity of an environment?
The maximum population density and sustainability of the environment (K)
44
How does intra-specific competition affect the growth rate of a population?
Increased competition slows down the growth rate as individual resources become scarcer
45
What are the two types of interactions in populations?
1. Direct 2. Indirect
46
Define 'emigration'.
The act of leaving the original area of a population
47
Define 'immigration'.
The arrival of emigrated individuals into a new area
48
What is 'migration'?
Seasonal movement with a return, conditioned by food availability, climate change, or reproduction
49
What is 'irupcia'?
Mass exodus from an area of overpopulation due to exceeding the environmental carrying capacity
50
What is 'invasion' in ecological terms?
Non-native organisms occupying and dominating the niches of native organisms
51
What does 'regression' refer to in population dynamics?
The reduction of the area of distribution due to emigration from inhabited space
52
What factors influence the spatial activity of populations?
* Search for new shelters * Food sources * Mates * Other existential needs
53
What are the basic attributes of population structure?
* Sex ratio * Age structure * Social structure
54
What is the significance of sex ratio in a population?
It reflects the proportion of males and females, influenced by age, reproduction, and population density
55
What is 'etilita'?
Age structure of a population, influenced by mortality during ontogeny
56
How is age structure represented graphically?
Using population pyramids: growing, stabilized, or regressive
57
What are the two types of biocenoses based on integrity/complexity?
1. Partial / taxocenoses 2. Complex
58
Define 'stratification' in an ecosystem.
The spatial distribution or layering of a biotope
59
What are the two types of ecosystems based on physical-chemical conditions?
1. Terrestrial 2. Aquatic
60
What is an 'ecosystem'?
The basic functional unit of nature consisting of biocenosis and biotope
61
What is 'stratocenóza'?
A community of organisms associated with a specific layer or stratum
62
What does vertical structure refer to in ecological communities?
Height/depth division of a community
## Footnote
This structure varies not only in space but also over time.
63
What is stratocenosis?
Community of organisms associated with a specific layer/biostratum
## Footnote
Includes layers with specific physical-chemical properties that support uniquely adapted communities.
64
What characterizes the horizontal structure of a biocenosis?
Spatial arrangement of biocenosis within one layer
## Footnote
Mosaic nature of the environment indicates diversity and stability.
65
How does increased mosaicity affect diversity and stability?
Higher mosaicity and spatial heterogeneity increase diversity and stability
## Footnote
Example: Peat bogs exhibit high diversity due to varied microstructural environments.
66
What does the vertical structure of biocenosis represent?
Vertical layering of space in terrestrial ecosystems
## Footnote
Each layer is inhabited by a different stratocenosis due to competition for resources.
67
What are the five basic layers of vertical structure in biocenosis?
* Rhizosphere
* Ground
* Herbaceous
* Shrub
* Tree
## Footnote
Each layer has distinct organisms adapted to its conditions.
68
What is the significance of the rhizosphere layer?
Contains plant organs and soil organisms
## Footnote
Includes bulbs, roots, and geobionts.
69
What is the height range for the E1 layer?
Up to 1 meter
## Footnote
This layer includes herbs, grasses, and seedlings.
70
What defines the E3 layer in vertical biocenosis structure?
Height over 5 meters, tree layer
## Footnote
Contains phanerophytes and has a canopy and understory.
71
What are the temporal structures of biocenosis?
* Hyemal (winter)
* Prevernál (pre-spring)
* Vernál (spring)
* Aestivál (summer)
* Autumnál (autumn)
* Postautumnál (late autumn)
## Footnote
Each term refers to specific seasonal phases.
72
What is an ecotone?
Transitional community at the borders of different communities
## Footnote
Exhibits unique life conditions influenced by neighboring biocenoses.
73
What is a biocenotic connection?
Heterogeneous communities with a close relationship to primary producers
## Footnote
Example: A single oak tree supports numerous species.
74
What is a biochorion?
Area within a habitat where organisms concentrate more than elsewhere
## Footnote
Represents horizontal stratification with different properties.
75
What does the term synúzium refer to?
Associations of plants with similar life forms
## Footnote
Used in phytocenology to describe plant communities.
76
What are the basic properties of water that influence life in it?
* Temperature
* Density
* Salinity
* Viscosity
* Hydrostatic pressure
* Surface tension
* Dissolved gases and minerals
## Footnote
Each property plays a crucial role in aquatic ecosystems.
77
What is the definition of lentic waters?
Standing waters such as lakes and marshes
## Footnote
Characterized by stratification based on temperature and density.
78
What are the three thermal layers in stratified standing waters?
* Epilimnion
* Metalimnion
* Hypolimnion
## Footnote
Each layer has distinct temperature and mixing characteristics.
79
What is the epilimnion layer?
Surface layer, warmed by solar radiation
## Footnote
Temperature decreases with depth.
80
What is the role of the metalimnion layer?
Middle layer characterized by a sharp temperature drop
## Footnote
Prevents mixing between the epilimnion and hypolimnion.
81
What is a meromictic lake?
Deep lakes where water does not mix to the bottom
## Footnote
Light and oxygen are absent in deeper layers.
82
What is a dimictic lake?
Lakes that experience seasonal mixing
## Footnote
Typically mix in spring and autumn.
83
What are the characteristics of amiktické lakes?
Permanentne pokryté ľadom, cirkulácia absentuje
## Footnote
Amiktické jazera sú trvalo zamrznuté a nevykazujú cirkuláciu vody.
84
Define holomiktické lakes.
Zamŕzajú, ale raz do roka dochádza ku kompletnej cirkulácii
## Footnote
Holomiktické jazera majú sezónnu cirkuláciu, ktorá sa zvyčajne vyskytuje raz za rok.
85
What is the meaning of dimiktické lakes?
Väčšina našich jazier, dochádza k pravidelnému sezónnemu premiešavaniu (jar a jeseň) a sezónnej stagnácii (leto, zima)
## Footnote
Dimiktické jazera prechádzajú sezónnymi zmenami teploty a cirkulácie.
86
What is kompletná / úplná cirkulácia in lakes?
Dôjde k nej, keď celá masa vody dosiahne rovnakú teplotu (4°C)
## Footnote
Na jeseň sa zhora nadol ochladzuje, zatiaľ čo na jar sa zhora nadol ohrieva.
87
List the three main areas of a lake.
* Litorál
* Pelagiál
* Bentál
## Footnote
Tieto oblasti sa líšia v hĺbke a prístupe k svetlu.
88
What is litorál?
Pobrežná zóna, vždy fotická s prebiehajúcou fotosyntézou
## Footnote
Litorál je oblasť jazera, kde prebieha fotosyntéza.
89
Define pelagiál.
Voľná voda, ďalej od brehu, podľa hĺbky má fotickú aj afotickú zónu
## Footnote
Pelagiál je oblasť, kde sa nachádzajú organizmy v rôznych hĺbkach.
90
What is bentál?
Dnová vrstva, zväčša bez prístupu svetla
## Footnote
Bentál predstavuje spodnú časť vodného ekosystému, kde svetlo nedosahuje.
91
What are lotické vody?
Potôčik, potok, rieka
## Footnote
Lotické vody sú charakterizované prúdením vody.
92
What are the three basic zones of a river's longitudinal profile?
* Krenál
* Ritrál
* Potamál
## Footnote
Tieto zóny sa líšia v podmienkach a typoch organizmov.
93
Define krenál.
Vlastný prameň, vysoká turbidita, veľa kyslíka, málo živín, nízka teplota
## Footnote
Krenál je oblasť s vysokým obsahom kyslíka a nízkou teplotou.
94
What characterizes ritrál?
Stredná zóna, vodnatejšie úseky, charakterizované rýchlejším prúdením a turbiditou
## Footnote
Ritrál má vyšší obsah kyslíka, ktorý pochádza z mechanického prúdenia vody.
95
Define potamál.
Dolný tok rieky, pomalšie prúdenie, vyššia teplota, viac živín, menej kyslíka
## Footnote
Potamál je oblasť, kde sa nachádzajú autochtónne zdroje energie.
96
What are the three basic zones of marine stratification?
* Litorál
* Pelagiál
* Bentál
## Footnote
Tieto zóny sa líšia hustotou, salinitou a teplotou.
97
What is the eufotická zóna?
Prítomný planktón, prostredie pobrežia až do 200 m
## Footnote
Eufotická zóna je oblasť, kde preniká svetlo a podporuje fotosyntézu.
98
What is termoklína?
Zóna s prudkým poklesom teploty
## Footnote
Termoklína ovplyvňuje teplotný profil vody.
99
What is pelagiál divided into?
* Epipelagiál (do 200 m)
* Mezopelagiál (do 1 km)
* Bathypelagiál (do 2 km)
* Abyssopelagiál (do 6 km)
* Hadálopelagiál (do 11 km)
## Footnote
Tieto zóny sa líšia hĺbkou a typom organizmov.
100
What defines bentál?
Zóna dna, spoločenstvo bentosu, sesilný spôsob života
## Footnote
Bentál je oblasť, kde organizmy žijú na dne vodného ekosystému.
101
What is the definition of succession in ecology?
102
What are biogeochemické cykly?
Cykly uhlíka, kyslíka, dusíka, fosforu a síry a ich špecifický dopad na vývoj ekologických systémov
## Footnote
Tieto cykly sú kľúčové pre udržanie rovnováhy v ekosystémoch.
103
What is tolerance in ecology?
Definícia a vymedzenie pojmov, autekologická valencia a tolerancia
## Footnote
Tolerancia sa týka schopnosti organizmov prežiť v rôznych podmienkach prostredia.
104
What is ecological diversity?
Ekologická diverzita a jej indexy
## Footnote
Diverzita sa meria rôznymi spôsobmi, aby sa hodnotil stav ekosystémov.
105
Define interspecifické interakcie.
Medzidruhové vzťahy vytvárajú v každom spoločenstve sieť väzieb, ktorá reguluje početnosť populácií
## Footnote
Tieto interakcie sú dôležité pre udržanie rovnováhy v ekosystémoch.
106
What is neutralizmus?
Interakcia, kde si druhy navzájom neubližujú ani nepomáhajú
## Footnote
Neutralizmus je typ interakcie, ktorá nemá významný dopad na populácie.
107
Define protokooperácia.
Interakcia, kde si druhy navzájom pomáhajú, ale nie sú na nej závislé
## Footnote
Protokooperácia je forma symbiózy, ktorá nie je nevyhnutná pre prežitie.
108
What is aliančná interakcia?
Interakcia, kde si druhy pomáhajú a sú na sebe závislé
## Footnote
Aliancia je silnejšia forma vzájomnej pomoci medzi druhmi.
109
What is komenzalizmus?
Interakcia, kde jeden druh má prospech a druhý nie je ovplyvnený
## Footnote
Komenzalizmus je bežná forma interakcií v ekosystémoch.
110
Define mutualizmus.
Interakcia, kde si oba druhy navzájom pomáhajú a profitujú
## Footnote
Mutualizmus je dôležitý pre mnohé ekosystémy a ich funkcie.
111
What is amenzalizmus?
Interakcia, kde jeden druh ubližuje druhému bez priameho prospechu pre seba
## Footnote
Amenzalizmus ovplyvňuje dynamiku populácií.
112
Define kompetíciu.
Interakcia, kde druhy súťažia o obmedzené zdroje
## Footnote
Kompetícia môže byť vnútrodruhová alebo medzidruhová.
113
What is predácia?
Interakcia, kde jeden druh (predátor) loví a zabíja iný druh (korisť)
## Footnote
Predácia je kľúčovým procesom v potravinových reťazcoch.
114
Define parazitizmus.
Interakcia, kde parazit žije na alebo v hostiteľovi a škodí mu
## Footnote
Parazitizmus môže viesť k oslabení hostiteľa.
115
What is intra- and interspecific competition?
* Intra-: Konkurencia medzi jedincami rovnakého druhu
* Inter-: Konkurencia medzi rôznymi druhmi
## Footnote
Tieto formy konkurencie ovplyvňujú dynamiku populácií.
116
What is the Lotkov-Volterov model?
Model konkurencie, ktorý opisuje interakcie medzi predátorom a korisťou
## Footnote
Tento model ukazuje dynamiku populácií a ich vzájomné vzťahy.
117
Define ecological niche.
Rozsah tolerancií a požiadaviek organizmu na podmienky a zdroje
## Footnote
Ekologická nika je koncept, ktorý popisuje miesto organizmu v ekosystéme.
118
What is the significance of ecological diversity?
Vyššia rozmanitosť zvyšuje stabilitu a odolnosť ekosystému
## Footnote
Ekologická diverzita je kľúčová pre udržanie ekosystémových funkcií.
119
What is the relationship between ecosystem heterogeneity and biodiversity?
The more heterogeneous/diverse an ecosystem is, the more niches it provides, leading to increased biodiversity.
120
Can closely related species coexist in the same ecological niche?
No, closely related species cannot permanently coexist in the same niche.
121
What triggers competition among species occupying similar niches?
The similarity of niches triggers competition, with the species having broader ecological tolerance winning.
122
What is a fundamental ecological niche?
A fundamental niche is the set of all conditions and resources needed by a species.
123
What is a realized ecological niche?
A realized niche represents the actual, limited conditions and resources available, accounting for interspecific interactions.
124
Define niche complementarity.
Niche complementarity refers to the overlapping or complementarity of identical ecological niches utilized by multiple species.
125
What are the consequences of ecological niche overlap?
* Displacement of the less competitive species
* Adaptation to previously unused environmental resources
* More effective use of different resource gradients
126
What is niche differentiation?
Niche differentiation is the tendency of coexisting species to differ in how they utilize a shared niche.
127
What is a guild in ecological terms?
A guild is a functional group of organisms in a community that share similar functional roles regardless of taxonomic affiliation.
128
What are neutral models in ecology?
Neutral models are community models that exhibit certain features of real counterparts but exclude biotic interaction consequences.
129
What does the Unified Neutral Theory of Biodiversity explain?
It explains community composition through the balance of speciation, extinction, natality, mortality, and migration under the assumption of species equality.
130
What are null models in ecology?
Null models maintain certain characteristics of real communities but randomly group these characteristics, excluding biotic interactions.
131
What is the Lotka-Volterra model of competition?
It is a model of population dynamics for interspecific competitors, conditioned by the intensity of intraspecific competition.
132
What does primary production refer to?
Primary production is the amount of organic matter/energy created and stored through photosynthesis or chemosynthesis per unit time per area/volume.
133
What is biomass?
Biomass is the organic matter, including living and non-living parts of organisms per unit area or volume.
134
Define productivity in ecological terms.
Productivity is the ability of living organisms to create organic matter over time.
135
What is the difference between production and productivity?
Production refers to the quantity of organic matter produced per time unit per area, while productivity is the rate of this production.
136
Fill in the blank: The quantity of organic matter produced by organisms is measured in _______.
J/m2, t/ha, C/m2
137
What is primary production (PP)?
The amount of organic matter/energy created and fixed by photosynthesis of green plants or chemosynthesis of autotrophic bacteria per unit time per unit area/volume
## Footnote
PP represents the photosynthetic fixation of solar energy and the synthesis of organic matter by autotrophic organisms like green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
138
What is the equation representing photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + PAR → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP
## Footnote
PAR stands for Photosynthetically Active Radiation.
139
What are the two types of primary production?
* Gross Primary Production (GPP)
* Net Primary Production (NPP)
## Footnote
GPP is the total energy and matter that a plant incorporates through photosynthesis, while NPP is GPP minus the respiratory heat lost by the plant.
140
How is Net Primary Production (NPP) calculated?
NPP = GPP - Respiratory Heat (RA)
## Footnote
NPP represents the energy available for heterotrophic organisms.
141
What factors influence primary production?
* Geographical latitude
* Amount of incoming solar radiation
* Efficiency of photosynthesis
* Availability of water
* Availability of nutrients/minerals
* Proximity to the ocean
## Footnote
Additional factors include CO2, temperature, soil depth, canopy coverage, genetic efficiency of assimilation tissues, seasonality, and light penetration in water.
142
What is the role of water in photosynthesis?
Water scarcity limits the rate of photosynthesis and is related to temperature
## Footnote
At higher temperatures, transpiration increases, leading to closed stomata which reduces CO2 capture.
143
What is the compensation point in photosynthesis?
The point at which a plant produces enough energy for itself to survive
## Footnote
Above this point, plants produce excess energy for others; below it, they only respire.
144
What is the difference between gross and net production?
* Gross production: Total energy and matter for independent organism functioning
* Net production: Amount available for the next trophic level, reduced by metabolic consumption of the producer
## Footnote
Net production is crucial for understanding energy transfer in ecosystems.
145
How does primary production vary globally?
PP is unevenly distributed; oceans contribute less than half of the total production despite covering two-thirds of the Earth
## Footnote
Factors like geographical latitude, solar radiation, and nutrient availability significantly affect PP.
146
Which areas have the highest primary production?
* Tropical regions
* Temperate regions
* Polar regions
## Footnote
The highest PP is found in tropical zones, with lower rates in polar areas.
147
What is secondary production (SP)?
The amount of biomass produced by heterotrophic organisms
## Footnote
This includes bacteria, fungi, and animals.
148
True or False: Primary production in deserts is high.
False
## Footnote
Deserts receive a lot of solar radiation but have low photosynthetic efficiency.
149
Fill in the blank: The efficiency of photosynthesis consists of the effectiveness of _______ and the conversion of captured light into new biomass.
capturing incoming radiation
## Footnote
This includes capturing sunlight by leaves and converting it to biomass.
150
What types of energy sources do aquatic communities rely on?
* Autochthonous sources (photosynthesis by macrophytes and phytoplankton)
* Allochthonous sources (organic matter from terrestrial ecosystems)
## Footnote
The significance of each source depends on the volume of water and the type of surrounding terrestrial community.
151
What characterizes low production areas like deserts and polar regions?
Production occurs intensely only during limited suitable periods
## Footnote
These areas adapt their production strategies based on environmental conditions.
152
What is the relationship between primary production and depth in aquatic environments?
PP is influenced by depth due to decreasing light and nutrient availability
## Footnote
Light penetration decreases with depth, limiting photosynthesis.
153
What is the relationship between primary production and nutrient availability in oceans?
Oceans often have nutrient-poor conditions, leading to lower PP despite receiving adequate sunlight
## Footnote
These areas are referred to as 'ocean deserts'.
154
What is the primary source of organic matter in large lakes?
Photosynthesis by phytoplankton
## Footnote
In large lakes, most organic input comes from internal production rather than terrestrial sources.
155
What is the primary production in the ocean dependent on?
Autochthonous production of phytoplankton and associated zooplankton
## Footnote
Terrestrial organic matter input is negligible in oceanic systems.
156
Define secondary production (SP).
Amount of biomass produced by heterotrophic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and animals.
157
How do heterotrophic organisms obtain energy?
By consuming plants (primary consumers) or other heterotrophs (secondary consumers).
158
What is the relationship between primary production (PP) and secondary production (SP)?
SP is significantly conditioned by PP.
159
Is secondary production (SP) generally more or less efficient than primary production (PP)?
SP is more efficient than PP.
160
What are the energy transfer efficiencies that influence energy flow in ecosystems?
Consumption efficiency (CE), assimilation efficiency (AE), and production efficiency (PE).
161
How is consumption efficiency (CE) calculated?
CE = In / Pn-1 * 100
162
What does 'In' represent in the consumption efficiency formula?
Energy intake at trophic level n.
163
What does 'Pn-1' represent in the consumption efficiency formula?
Productivity available for consumption from trophic level n-1.
164
What is the approximate CE in forests?
5%.
165
What is the approximate CE in grassland ecosystems?
25%.
166
What is the approximate CE in marine/planktonic ecosystems?
Approximately 50%.
167
Define assimilation efficiency (AE).
Amount of energy absorbed from food that can be utilized by the organism.
168
How is assimilation efficiency (AE) calculated?
AE = An / In * 100
169
What does 'An' represent in the assimilation efficiency formula?
Energy assimilated at trophic level n.
170
Describe the efficiency of herbivores in processing plant food.
Low processing efficiency with high intake and feces.
171
Describe the efficiency of carnivores in processing animal food.
Higher processing efficiency with high intake and low feces.
172
What is production efficiency (PE)?
Amount of assimilated energy incorporated into biomass available for higher trophic levels.
173
How is production efficiency (PE) calculated?
PE = Pn / An * 100
174
What type of organisms typically have high production efficiency?
Invertebrates, with PE ranging from 30-40%.
175
Which type of vertebrates have the lowest production efficiency?
Endothermic vertebrates, with PE around 1-2%.
176
What differentiates the trophic structure in various communities?
Energy flow varies significantly between ecosystems like forests, grasslands, and aquatic systems.
177
What is the relationship between grazing and detrital systems?
They are closely linked, contributing to a food web.
178
What is the role of detritivores in the detrital system?
They consume decomposed organic matter and recycle energy.
179
What distinguishes the detrital system from the grazing system?
In the detrital system, energy is not lost but recycled from dead organic matter.
180
What are ecosystem services?
Benefits provided by ecosystems to humans, including resources and processes.
181
What is a biome?
A basic unit of the biosphere characterized by specific climate conditions and biodiversity.
182
What is isocenosis?
A term related to ecological communities, referencing specific ecological relationships.
183
What factors influence biogeographical and ecological regionalization in Slovakia?
Key anthropogenic factors such as historical settlement and colonization.
