ELM 18 Learning + memory 1

Question 1

Question: What is learning?

Answer 1

Answer: Learning refers to the acquisition of new knowledge or skills that is adaptive in nature.

Question 2

Question: Define memory.

Answer 2

Answer: Memory is the retention of learned information, linked to processes of storage and retrieval.

Question 3

Question: What are the two main types of memory?

Answer 3

Answer: Declarative or explicit memory involves facts and events, while non-declarative or implicit memory includes procedural skills, habits, and associative learning.

Question 4

Question: Name the brain areas associated with memory.

Answer 4

Answer: The hippocampus is linked to explicit memory, the cerebellum and basal ganglia (striatum, putamen) are associated with procedural memory, and the amygdala is involved in emotional responses.

Question 5

Question: What are place cells, and where are they found?

Answer 5

Answer: Place cells are hippocampal neurons that fire at a high rate when an animal is in a specific location in its environment. They are part of the limbic system in the temporal lobe and are associated with cognitive maps and navigation.

Question 6

Question: Define cognitive maps.

Answer 6

Answer: Cognitive maps are internal neural representations of the landscape in which an animal travels. They allow animals to visualize their surroundings and solve orientation problems.

Question 7

Question: What did Maguire et al. find in their study comparing taxi drivers and bus drivers in London?

Answer 7

Answer: Maguire et al. found that taxi drivers had greater grey matter volume in the hippocampus compared to bus drivers. Grey matter levels were positively correlated with years of navigation experience, suggesting that spatial knowledge is associated with patterns of hippocampal grey matter volume.

Question 8

Question: What are the characteristics of short-term memory (STM)?

Answer 8

Answer: STM lasts for seconds to hours, has a limited capacity, is sensitive to disruption (labile), and does not require new RNA/protein synthesis. Repetition promotes retention in STM.

Question 9

Question: Describe the process of consolidation from short-term memory (STM) to long-term memory (LTM).

Answer 9

Answer: Consolidation leads to the formation of long-term memory (LTM), which can last from days to years. LTM has an unlimited capacity and requires new RNA/protein synthesis. Consolidation involves the encoding and storage of information from STM into LTM.

Question 10

Question: What is working memory, and how does it differ from short-term memory (STM)?

Answer 10

Answer: Working memory is used to hold information “in mind” for a short duration and involves both maintenance and manipulation of memory. It has a limited capacity and does not last long, whereas STM is primarily involved in maintenance.

Question 11

Question: What are the stages of memory processing?

Answer 11

Answer: The stages of memory processing include sensory stimulus reception, encoding (storing information), storage (retaining information), retrieval (recalling information), and utilization of the retrieved information by the brain.

Question 12

Question: What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?

Answer 12

Answer: Long-term potentiation (LTP) is the persistent strengthening of synapses following high-frequency stimulation of a chemical synapse. It leads to a long-lasting increase in signal transmission between two neurons and is a principal model of the mechanisms underlying learning and memory.

Question 13

Question: Describe the mechanisms involved in long-term potentiation (LTP).

Answer 13

Answer: LTP involves both presynaptic and postsynaptic changes, including increased neurotransmitter release, increased dendritic area and spines, and increased AMPA receptor density. Postsynaptic mechanisms rely on diverse signaling pathways, including PKA and ERK, and require protein synthesis.

Question 14

Question: What are the two types of glutamate receptors involved in LTP?

Answer 14

Answer: The two types of glutamate receptors are AMPA receptors, which allow sodium influx upon glutamate binding, and NMDA receptors, which require glutamate, glycine, and depolarization to allow sodium and calcium influx. Calcium influx through NMDA receptors acts as a second messenger in LTP.

Question 15

Question: What is long-term depression (LTD), and how does it differ from LTP?

Answer 15

Answer: Long-term depression (LTD) is the long-lasting decrease in the efficiency of synaptic transmission. It occurs when synaptic transmission coincides with weak depolarization of the postsynaptic neuron. LTD is involved in various physiological functions, including hippocampus-dependent learning and memory, fear conditioning, recognition memory, and cerebellar learning.

Question 16

Question: What are some physiological functions of long-term depression (LTD)?

Answer 16

Answer: Physiological functions of LTD include hippocampus-dependent learning and memory, fear conditioning in the amygdala, recognition memory in the perirhinal cortex, and cerebellar learning. LTD is also implicated in pathological states such as psychiatric disorders, drug addiction, mental retardation, and neurodegenerative diseases.

Question 17

Question: What is amnesia?

Answer 17

Answer: Amnesia is the loss of memories, often resulting from trauma. It can be transient or permanent and may manifest as anterograde amnesia (difficulty learning new information) or retrograde amnesia (difficulty remembering past information).

Question 18

Question: Describe the case of HM and its significance in understanding memory.

Answer 18

Answer: HM experienced severe epileptic seizures and underwent bilateral medial temporal lobe resection, resulting in anterograde amnesia. His case led scientists to distinguish between short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), as well as declarative and non-declarative memory.

Question 19

Question: What is dementia, and what are its common causes?

Answer 19

Answer: Dementia refers to a group of symptoms affecting memory, thinking, and social abilities. It has various causes, with Alzheimer’s disease being the most common. Dementia is progressive, worsens over time, and affects different parts of the brain depending on its cause.

Question 20

Question: What characterizes Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and what are its key symptoms?

Answer 20

Answer: Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the presence of intracellular neurofibrillary tangles and accumulation of extracellular Beta-amyloid plaques. Memory loss is a key symptom, accompanied by a continuous decline in thinking, behavioral, and social skills. Currently, there is no cure for AD.

Question 21

Question: What is vascular dementia, and what are its causes and symptoms?

Answer 21

Answer: Vascular dementia is the second most common type of dementia, often developing after a stroke or other conditions that damage blood vessels and reduce circulation. Symptoms vary depending on the part of the brain affected but may include memory problems, reasoning difficulties, planning issues, and impaired judgment. Treatment focuses on managing health conditions and risk factors contributing to vascular dementia.