els prelims Flashcards
(144 cards)
1
Q
- Earth’s place in space and the universe
A
- Astronomy
2
Q
- Composition of Earth materials,
structures, and processes as well as how
the planet earth changed over time and
its organisms
A
- Geology
3
Q
- Involves weather and climate
A
- Meteorology
4
Q
- Earth’s ocean and the processes that
affects it and other bodies of water
A
- Oceanography & Hydrology
5
Q
- Dealing with the physical constitution of the earth and its atmosphere - Made of many branches and knowledge concerning all aspects of the earth system: - Geology - Meteorology - Climatology - Oceanography - Environmental science
A
EARTH SCIENCE
6
Q
to help us learn about
the solar system, the galaxies, and the universe
- Deals with celestial bodies, space, and the
physical universe as a whole
A
ASTRONOMY
- Uses principles from earth
7
Q
- An idea that is suggested or presented as
possibly true but that is not known or proven to
be true
A
THEORY
8
Q
- All existing matter and space considered as a
whole; the cosmos
A
UNIVERSE
9
Q
- The ancient Hindi belief
- The universe came from a “cosmic egg”
- Ancient Hindu text “Rigveda”
- Oscillating universe - Brahmanda
- Concentrated on a single point that
collapses and expands
A
- COSMIC EGG UNIVERSE (15TH CENTURY BCE)
10
Q
- Geocentric universe
- Earth is in the middle with the other
celestial bodies on circular orbits
presented with the 4 classical elements
acted upon by gravity (water, air) and
levity (earth, fire)
A
- ARISTOTELIAN THEORY (4TH CENTURY BCE)
11
Q
- Claudius Ptolemy, a Roman-Egyptian
mathematician and astronomer also
described a geocentric universe like
Aristotle
A
- PTOLEMAIC UNIVERSE (2ND CENTURY CE)
12
Q
- Christian - John Philoponus of Alexandria
- Jewish - Saadia Gaon (10th century CE)
- Islam - Al-Kindi (9th century) and
Al-Ghaali (11th century) - All of them believed that the universe is
finite in time, thus had a beginning.
A
- ABRAHAMIC UNIVERSE
13
Q
- Nicolaus Copernicus made the
heliocentric model which was first
theorized by Aristarchus of Samos (3rd
century BCE)
A
- COPERNICAN UNIVERSE (1563)
14
Q
isaac newton
- Published in “Principia”
- Static, steady state, infinite universe
- Matter is uniformly distributed, universe is
gravitationally balanced but essentially
unstable
A
- NEWTONIAN UNIVERSE (1687)
15
Q
- Edwin Hubble posited that the universe is continuously expanding - Supported by the discovery of cosmic microwave background (CMB) by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson and 1965 - With the discovery of CMB, the ----- became the mainstream scientific view - It is theorized that the ----- happened 13 to 14 billion years ago - Cosmic microwave background (CMB) is thought to be radiation from the Big Bang, or the time when the universe began
A
- BIG BANG THEORY (1929)
16
Q
- Albert Einstein abandoned his original theory in favor of this one - He applied his theory of relativity to this, which agrees with to the idea that the universe is expanding continuously - This theorizes that the universe will undergo an endless cycle of Big Bang followed by a Big Crunch
A
- OSCILLATING UNIVERSE (1930)
17
Q
- Proposed by american physicist Alan Guth based on the BBT - Incorporated a short, early, exponential cosmic inflation in order to solve the problems of the BBT
A
- INFLATIONARY UNIVERSE (1980)
18
Q
- The Russian-American Andrei Linde
theorized that the universe is just one of
many “bubble” universes
A
- MULTIVERSE (1983)
19
Q
- Based on observations
- Holds for specific conditions
- More descriptive
- “What happens?”
A
LAWS
20
Q
- Relies heavily on inferences
- Generalizations
- More explanatory
- “How does it happen?”
A
THEORIES
21
Q
- Based on evidence
- Can change with new evidence
- Cannot change within each other
A
SIMILARITIES
22
Q
- Universe was composed of very small, indivisible,
and indestructible atoms - Universe is like a giant living body
A
ATOMIC UNIVERSE
23
Q
- Earth is the center of the solar system
- Earth stayed motionless
- Aristotle and Ptolemy
A
GEOCENTRIC UNIVERSE
24
Q
- Sun is the center of the solar system
- Nicolaus Copernicus
A
HELIOCENTRIC UNIVERSE
25
- Rene Descartes
- The vacuum of space was NOT empty at all;
filled with matter that swirled around in large and
small vortices
- Gravitational effects
CARTESIAN VORTEX MODEL
26
- Current accepted model on the formation of the
universe
- Matter was not present; only pure energy
compressed in a single point called singularity
- A violent explosion which caused the inflation
and expansion of the universe
- Gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear
force, weak nuclear force
- After 3 minutes, the universe began to cool
down, allowing the protons and neutrons to fuse
and form the nucleus of hydrogen and helium
atoms
BIG BANG THEORY
27
- Albert Einstein
- Followed the general theory of relativity
equations of the universe with positive curvature
- The curvature resulted in the expansion of the
universe for a time, and then to its contraction
due to gravity
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE
28
- Fred Hoyle, Thomas Gold, and Hermann Bondi
- A universe that expanded but did not change its
density
STEADY-STATE THEORY
29
- One of the many “bubbles” that grew as a part
| of a multiverse
MULTIVERSE
30
EXPLANATION
- A rogue star passed close to the sun and
stripped materials (hot gases)
- Gases continued to spin in the same direction
which formed the planets
ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
31
EXPLANATION
- Solar system started as a large cloud of gas that
contracted due to self-gravity
- Started with a rotating disk (protosun), while
planets would begin forming within a disk
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
32
CONTRIBUTION
- Explained why all planets revolve in the same
direction
- Explained why inner planets (sun) are denser
than outer ones (rogue star)
ENCOUNTER HYPOTHESIS
33
PROBLEM
- Could not account why 99% of the solar system’s
mass is in the sun, but 99% of its angular
momentum is in the planets
NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
34
- Average kinetic energy
- Adding energy (heating) atoms and
molecules increases their motion,
resulting in an increase in temperature
- Venus: 471 degrees celsius
- Earth: 14 degrees celsius
- Mars: -63 degrees celsius
1. Temperature
35
```
- The presence of water allowed the first
photosynthetic organisms to thrive
- Scientists believe that water on Earth
came from two possible sources: water
released through volcanism and water
that came from the icy meteors of the
outer regions of the solar system that
bombarded Earth
- Venus: no water; 0.002% water vapor
- Earth: about 71% is water-covered
- Mars: water exists in a form of polar ice
caps
```
2. Water
36
```
- Thin layer of gases that hover above the
planet’s surface, held in place by gravity
- Tropo, strato, meso, thermo, exo
- Any planet devoid of an atmosphere
would have an average temp below
freezing
- Would experience unpredictable
weather and climates
- Extreme amount of UV radiation
```
3. Atmosphere
37
- Heat energy
- Internal sources: geothermal or
rotational
- External source: the sun
- Heat coming from the earth is caused by
radiogenic heat from radioactive
decay; extruded via volcanism at plate
movement
- Heat coming from the sun is trapped by
the atmosphere
4. Energy
38
TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1. Isolated system
2. Closed system
3. Open system
39
- Energy and matter are conserved
1. Isolated system
40
- Only matter is conserved
2. Closed system
41
- None is conserved
3. Open system
42
THE SUBSYSTEMS
1. Geosphere
43
- Solid earth
- Rocks and regolith
- All landforms
1. Geosphere
44
- Totality of the earth’s water
2. Hydrosphere
45
- permanently frozen part
- Cryosphere
46
Hydrosphere Zones
```
- Photic zone
○ Epipelagic zone
- Aphotic zone
○ Mesopelagic zone
○ Bathypelagic zone
○ Abyssopelagic zone
```
47
(where light can pass
| through)
Photic zone
48
(sunlight zone)
○ Epipelagic zone
49
(no light)
- Aphotic zone
50
(twilight
| zone)
○ Mesopelagic zone
51
(midnight
zone)
→ Only bioluminescent
organisms
○ Bathypelagic zone
52
(the abyss)
○ Abyssopelagic zone
53
(the
| trenches)
○ Hadalpelagic zone
54
- Mixture of gases
- 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% argon,
0. 1% other gases
3. Atmosphere
55
- All life forms and organic matter
- Interactions between subsystems are
most dynamic
4. Biosphere
56
- Matter is recycled on the four subsystems
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
57
divide the ocean from the land to the sea:
horizontal zones
58
horizontal zones
Coastal zone –
| Pelagic zone –
59
the region in which the sea bottom is exposed during low tide
and is covered during high tide. Some animals have adapted to this environment
like sea stars, sea urchins, and some species of coral.
Coastal zone –
60
located seaward of the coastal zone’s low tide mark and is
always covered with water. There are two divisions: neritic zone and oceanic
zone. Neritic zone lies above the continental shelf. It extends from the low tide
mark outward from the seashore and extends to a depth of 200 m. Sunlight
penetrates this zone and many sea animals are found in it. Oceanic zone extends
from the edge of the continental shelf, over the continental shelf, and over the
ocean floor. It is dark in this zone.
Pelagic zone –
61
divide the oceans according to the amount of sunlight it
receives:
vertical zones
62
divide the oceans according to the amount of sunlight it
receives:
vertical zones
63
vertical zones
Epipelagic zone or the sunlight zone (0-200 m)
Mesopelagic zone or the twilight zone (200-1000 m) –
Bathypelagic zone or the midnight zone (1000-4000 m) –
Abyssopelagic zone or the abyss (4000-6000 m) –
Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches (6000 m-bottom) –
64
zone (1000-4000 m) –
Bathypelagic zone or the midnight
65
(4000-6000 m) –
Abyssopelagic zone or the abyss
66
(6000 m-bottom) –
Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches
67
like rivers and lakes supply water for household, agriculture,
commercial use. Rivers are fresh flowing bodies of water from across the surface that
goes out to the sea. Rivers flow in channels. On the other hand, lakes are reservoirs of
relatively still waters surrounded by land. They are accumulated in natural or artificial
depressions on the surface of the land. Other inland waters include ponds, springs,
streams, wetlands, floodplains and reservoirs.
Inland waters
68
is the water found underground in the spaces or cracks of soil, sand
and rock.
is a good source of drinking
water, irrigation for crops, and an important component in many industrial processes.
Groundwater
69
are slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and
compaction of snow from mountains or near the poles.
Glaciers
70
It is the accumulation of water through small openings called pores in the rocks
and soil.
This process is called percolation.
71
are the world’s major communities.
They are classified according to the predominant vegetation and the adaptations of the
organisms to a particular climate.
Biomes
72
– consists of any part of Earth that is covered with water. This
includes freshwater and salt water. This biome can be further divided into freshwater
biomes, marine biomes, wetland biomes, coral reef biomes, and estuaries. These
subdivisions are based on the salt content of the water, the aquatic plants that live
there, and the aquatic animals that thrive there.
Aquatic biome
73
– is the largest and has a wide variety of plants, trees, animals,
insects, and microscopic organisms. The major characteristic of this biome is its
trees. About 30% of the Earth is considered a part of this biome. The forest biome is
further subdivided by its climate and type of trees present. The subdivisions are: the
rainforest biome, temperate biome, chaparral biome, alpine biome, and taiga biome.
2. Forest biome
74
– has one major, distinguishing characteristic, the fact that it has
very little vegetation. The climate is very extreme ranging from very hot in summers
(African deserts) and very cold in winters (Antarctic deserts). Rainfall occurs less
than 50 cm/year.
3. Desert biome
75
– is the coldest of all the biomes. Comparing it to a desert, the
4. Tundra biome
76
has more vegetation, albeit a simple structured one. It is noted for its frost-
molded landscapes, extremely low temperatures, little precipitation, poor nutrients,
and short growing seasons.
tundra
77
– it made of rolling hills of various grasses. They receive just
enough precipitation to maintain grass growth but not the growth of many trees.
There are a few trees that will grow in grasslands, but sporadic wildfires keep their
growth in check.
5. Grassland biome
78
There are two types of grassland,
the savannas and the temperate
| grasslands.
79
The core is divided into two:
the solid inner core and the liquid outer core.
80
is hard to study for scientists because it is inaccessible. They instead gather data from
seismic information and computer models.
The core
81
has a radius of 1,250 kilometers. It consists mainly of iron-nickel alloy
and is magnetic. It reaches a temperature of about 6,000°C, almost as hot as the surface
of the Sun. The pressure in the inner core is so great that the alloy cannot melt and
mostly stays solid.
The inner core
82
The boundary between the
| outer and inner core is sometimes referred to as
Lehmann discontinuity.
83
is made mostly of iron and nickel. The outer core
is approximately
2,300 km thick. It is very hot; the temperature ranges between 4,000°C to 5,000°C.
Because of this high temperature, --- is liquid.
The outer core
84
gave rise to the planet’s magnetic field.
Earth’s molten metallic core
85
is the
reason we have the north and south poles, see polar light shows called auroras, and
have a magnetosphere.
The core
86
Iron and Nickel
Magnetic
Solid
1,250 km
Inner Core
87
```
Iron and Nickel
Magnetic
Liquid
Cause of Earth’s Magnetic Field
2,300 km
```
Outer Core
88
is the thickest layer of the Earth. It is the middle layer and is subdivided
into lower and upper ---
The mantle
89
The mantle is mostly.---- This
------ circulates in currents determined by the cooling and sinking of heavier minerals
and the heating and rising of lighter ones.
molten rocks called magma
90
Elemental composition is mostly oxygen,
silicon, and magnesium. Small amounts of iron, aluminum, calcium, sodium, and
potassium are also present.
mantle
91
The mantle is about ---- thick.
2,900 km
92
is hot and exhibits plasticity (what does this mean?). The higher
pressure in the layer causes formation of minerals that are different from those of the
upper layer.
The lower mantle
93
The boundary between the lower mantle and the outer core is called---
. This boundary exists because of changes in perceived seismic
waves.
Gutenberg discontinuity
94
The lower mantle is-- thick.
2,240 km
95
is the ductile layer above the lower mantle extending from 100
km to 700 km below the Earth’s surface.
The asthenosphere
96
This term asthenosphere was given by British geologist
Joseph
| Barrell in 1914.
97
It is derived from the Greek word asthenos meaning “weak.”
asthenosphere
98
It is the layer
where solid materials are subjected to pressure and temperature in such a way where it
is not fully melted but not entirely solid.
asthenosphere
99
It is said that the --- plays a critical
| role in the movement of tectonic plates.
asthenosphere
100
forms the lithosphere and are
| relatively rigid.
The uppermost mantle and the Earth’s crust together
101
The upper boundary that separates the upper mantle from the Earth’s
crust is called
```
Moho discontinuity (also Mohorovicic discontinuity, named after Andrija
Mohorovicic (1857-1936), Croatian geophysicist).
```
102
Modern instruments have determined
| that the velocity of seismic waves increases at this boundary.
```
Moho discontinuity (also Mohorovicic discontinuity, named after Andrija
Mohorovicic (1857-1936), Croatian geophysicist).
```
103
```
Asthenosphere
Soft/magma
Exhibits “plasticity”
Convection currents
2,240 km
```
Lower/Mid-Mantle
104
Lithosphere
Rigid/Solid
Moho Boundary
660 km
Upper Mantle
105
is the thin, topmost layer of the Earth.
The crust
106
There are two different kinds of crust—
continental crust and oceanic crust.
107
```
Dark-colored
Rock sample: Basalt
More dense
Thin layer
50 km
```
Oceanic Crust
108
```
Light-colored
Rock sample: Granite
Less dense
Coarse-textured
Thick layer
40-70 km
```
Continental Crust
109
Near the surface are the lightest rocks, the granitic rocks which contains silicates and
aluminum, thus making the
sial layer.
110
Below the sial layer is the ---- of basaltic
| rocks containing silicates and magnesium. There is no sial layer on the oceanic crust.
sima layer
111
– it is the lowest layer. It
contains about 80% of the total mass of the
atmosphere. Most of the water vapor
present in the atmosphere is found here. All
weather-associated clouds are also in this
layer. The thickness of this layer varies; at
the average it reaches 12 km, 9 km at the
poles, and 17 km at the equator.
Troposphere
112
Temperature decreases as the altitude
increases because the atmosphere goes
thinner and absorbs less solar radiation. The
temperature stops decreasing at the
tropopause which is the topmost part of the
troposphere. Conversely, the warmest part
of this layer would be the bottommost, which
is closest to the Earth’s surface
Troposphere
113
– this is above the tropopause. This layer extends from the top of the
troposphere at 12 km above the Earth’s surface to the stratopause, with an altitude of 50
km. This layer is where our ozone (O3) is concentrated which absorbs ultraviolet rays
(UV rays). Because of this, unlike the troposphere where the temperature goes lower as
we go up, in this layer the temperature goes up the higher we go. We all know that the
ozone layer protects us from ultraviolet rays which damage living beings. This is also
where jet planes (not the passenger ones) fly. It also lacks the weather-producing air
turbulence and is almost completely free of clouds and other forms of weather.
Stratosphere
114
– the third layer of the atmosphere. It extends from the stratopause at
an altitude of about 50 km to the mesopause at about 80 km. In here, the temperature
goes down as we go up. At the upper mesosphere is where we can measure the coldest
temperature on the atmosphere, about -90°C. The temperature stops decreasing at the
mesopause. This layer also protects us from meteoroids (what do you call meteoroids
that manage to enter the Earth and collide on the planet’s surface?).
Mesosphere
115
– the fourth layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. It extends from the
mesopause at an altitude of 80 km up to around 700 km. In this layer, where it gets
bombarded by ultraviolet rays and X-rays from the sun, temperature ranges from 500°C
to 2,000°C. This is where almost all man-made satellites are located.
Thermosphere
116
It is also in this layer where we can find the ionosphere, about 80 km to 550 km
above the Earth’s surface. It is a layer where highly ionized gas is present. The ionized
gas is formed when ultraviolet rays knock off electrons from nitrogen and oxygen which is
abundant in this layer. The ions in this part of the atmosphere form layers or bands which
reflect radio waves. At the poles, the ions interact with air molecules along with the
Earth’s magnetic field, to form auroras.
Thermosphere
117
– this is the outermost layer of the Earth’s atmosphere. It extends at
about 700 km and has no clear upper boundary. Some say that the exosphere extends to
somewhere between 100,000 km to 190,000 km above the surface of the Earth which is
almost halfway to the Moon. It is a region where it is already considered a part of outer
space.
Exosphere
118
Air molecules are mainly oxygen and hydrogen that rarely collide but follow a
somewhat “ballistic trajectory” because of Earth’s gravity (like a cannon ball). Because of
this trajectory, some molecules go back down to the lower layers of the atmosphere or
possibly “leak out” to space if the molecule has greater momentum than the gravity can
pull.
Exosphere
119
- a lot of
astronomers supported this idea,
including Galileo Galilei
-
- Copernican Revolution
120
extended Copernicus’ idea by
positing the existence of a multitude of stars extending to infinity rather than just using a
narrow band of fixed stars. In 1584, Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno In 1605, Johannes Kepler
Thomas Digges (1576)
121
suggested that
even the Solar System is not the center of the universe, but rather an insignificant star
system among an infinite number of other systems.
- Giordano Bruno (1584)
122
posited that
orbits are not circular but elliptical, explaining the strange apparent movements of the
planets.
- Johannes Kepler (1605)
123
supported Copernicus’ theory which
| made him an enemy of the Church, particularly, the Inquisitors.
Even in the early 17th century, Galileo Galilei
124
```
DISCOVERED cosmic
microwave background (CMB) by
```
Arno
| Penzias and Robert Wilson and 1965
125
– the American physicist Alan Guth proposed a model of
the universe based on the Big Bang. He incorporated a short, early period of exponential
cosmic inflation in order to solve the horizon and flatness problems of the standard Big
Bang model.
Inflationary Universe (1980)
126
– The Russian-American physicist Andrei Linde developed the
inflationary universe with his chaotic inflation theory in 1983. The theory sees our universe
as just one of many “bubbles” that grew as a part of a multiverse.
Multiverse (1983)
127
is situated in one of the many arms of the Milky Way galaxy.
Our Solar System
128
This
galaxy is a disk-shaped collection of gases and dusts called interstellar clouds, in addition
to the stars, the planets, and other galactic bodies in it. The -----has an estimated
diameter of 150,000 to 180,000 light-years. Around the center of the galaxy, the galactic
bodies cluster to form the spiral arms of the -----.
Milky Way galaxy.
129
The arm where the Solar System is
| located is called the
Orion Arm.
130
is just one of the approximately 400 billion stars
| in this galaxy and situated 28,000 light-years from the center of the Milky Way.
Our Sun
131
The nearest
star to our Solar System is ----about 4.5 million light-years away, while the
.
Proxima Centauri
132
nearest neighbor galaxy is the
Andromeda Galaxy
133
the two common
| models of the Solar System.
The first was the geocentric model by Claudius Ptolemy (90-
168 CE), which states that the Earth is the center of the solar system, and the heliocentric
model by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), which states that the Sun is the center
instead.
134
which states that the Earth is the center of the solar system,
The first was the geocentric model by Claudius Ptolemy (90-
| 168 CE),
135
which states that the Sun is the center
| instead.
and the heliocentric
| model by Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543),
136
, a French
mathematician and physicist explained the
orbits of the planets in terms of primary
whirlpool-like motion and the satellites around
the planets as secondary whirlpool-like motion.
1. Descartes’ Vortex Theory - Rene
| Descartes (1596-1650)
137
is a French naturalist in the 18th century who
proposed that the planets were formed by the
collisions of the Sun with a giant comet. The
resulting debris formed into planets that rotate
in the same direction as they revolve around
the Sun.
2. Buffon’s Collision Theory – George
| Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788)
138
proposed the nebular theory which
posited that a great cloud of gas and dust,
called nebula, begins to collapse because of
gravitational pull. As the cloud contracted, it
spun more rapidly. The spinning cloud flattens
into a pancake-like object with a bulge at the
center. And as the nebula collapses further,
local regions contract on their own due to
gravity. These local regions become the sun
and the planets. This theory was found
problematic because of the angular momentum
exhibited by the sun was not enough to make
the young planets around it spin and gain its
3. Kant-Laplace Nebular Hypothesis –
based on the ideas of Descartes, Immanuel
Kant (1724-1804), and Pierre Simon Laplace
(1749-1827)
139
suggested that
the planets were formed from the material that was torn out of the sun when a speeding
massive star passed near it. Gravitational pull caused some debris from the Sun to be
pulled off. The torn off material subsequently condensed to form the planets.
4. Jeans-Jeffreys’ Tidal Hypothesis – Sir James Hopwood Jeans (1877-1946), a
British mathematician and astrophysicist and Harold Jeffreys (1891-1989),
140
– this theory addresses the problem of angular momentum that
is exhibited by the Kant-Laplace Hypothesis. This theorizes that the solar system was
formed as a result of the condensation of hydrogen gas and dust referred to as interstellar
clouds. A violent disturbance, such as an exploding supernova, is needed to trigger the
reaction for the condensation of the gas and dust clouds to occur. This collapse will form
the Sun and the planets.
5. Solar Nebular Theory
141
According to the theory, the formation of the planets involves stages, in contrast to the
single process of nebular theory. The first stage is the --------These
objects are now called planetisimals.
accretion of grain-sized particles to
| form small-sized particles which will later grow to several kilometers in diameter.
142
The second stage involves
formation of more massive
objects from coalescing planetisimals turning them to protoplanets. As more materials
coalesce to these bodies, they eventually form planets.
143
4TH Finally, the
young planetary system will consist of only rocky planets and gas giants.
Give it more millions of years, the system will end up with planets in stable orbits.
144
3RD After the system is formed, it is speculated that ----- If the protoplanet is
large enough, its gravity will pull in some of the lighter nebular gas which will turn the
protoplanet into a gas giant. If not, then the protoplanet will stay as a rocky or icy bodied
planet.
in a million years a solar wind will sweep
| away all of the leftover nebular gases from the young planetary system.
