Emotion and Decision-Making

Question 1

What are the 2 (related) core issues of emotions and decision making?

Answer 1

1. Are there universal “basic emotions”?
2. What is the role of physiological change?

Question 2

1. Are there universal “basic emotions”?
2. What is the role of physiological change?

These are the core issues of…?

Answer 2

Emotions and decision-making

Question 3

What are the 6 basic emotions according to Darwin (1872)?

Answer 3

1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Surprise
4. Sadness
5. Disgust
6. Enjoyment

Question 4

1. Anger
2. Fear
3. Surprise
4. Sadness
5. Disgust
6. Enjoyment

These are the 6 basic emotions according to…?

Answer 4

Darwin (1872)

Question 5

What is the criteria for “basic” emotions according to Ekman (1992)?

List 5 points

Answer 5

1. Rapid onset
2. Brief duration
3. Unbidden occurrence
4. Distinctive universal signals
5. Specific physiological correlates

Question 6

1. Rapid onset
2. Brief duration
3. Unbidden occurrence
4. Distinctive universal signals
5. Specific physiological correlates

These are the criteria for “basic” emotions according to …?

Answer 6

Ekman (1992)

Question 7

What did Darwin’s (1872) ‘The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals’ argue about emotions?

List 2 points

Answer 7

1. There are limited sets of “fundamental” emotions
2. This includes anger, fear, surprise, and sadness, that are found across cultures and, indeed, species

Question 8

1. There are limited sets of “fundamental” emotions
2. This includes anger, fear, surprise, and sadness, that are found across cultures and, indeed, species

Who proposed this?

Answer 8

Darwin (1872)

Question 9

In the 1960s-1980s the limited sets of emotions are explored in more detail

Who explored this?

Answer 9

Ekman

(e.g., Ekman & Friesen, 1971; Ekman et al., 1983)

Question 10

What did Ekman (1992) argue about emotions?

List 4 points

Answer 10

1. Like Darwin, Ekman argued that that there are culturally-universal emotions
2. Proposed Disgust, Joy, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Sadness as “basic”, culturally-ubiquitous emotions
3. Argues that these emotions have distinct neural and physiological signatures, although he is not necessarily claiming that the experience of (say) fear is a consequence of a particular profile of changes in heart rate, blood pressure, sweating etc
4. He is not necessarily accepting the James-Lange view – he is arguing against Cannon’s objection to that view

Question 11

1. Argued that that there are culturally-universal emotions
2. Proposed Disgust, Joy, Fear, Anger, Surprise, and Sadness as “basic”, culturally-ubiquitous emotions
3. Argues that these emotions have distinct neural and physiological signatures, although he is not necessarily claiming that the experience of (say) fear is a consequence of a particular profile of changes in heart rate, blood pressure, sweating etc
4. He is not necessarily accepting the James-Lange view – he is arguing against Cannon’s objection to that view

Who argued this?

Answer 11

Ekman (1992)

Question 12

What did Russell (e.g., 1994) argue about regarding emotions?

Answer 12

He argued against a categorical conception of emotion

Question 13

What did Russell (e.g., 1994) propose regarding the conception of emotions?

Answer 13

He proposed a single “core affect” comprising two dimensions:

1. Valence (positive to negative)
2. Arousal (low to high)

Different emotions might represent different points in this 2D space (e.g., sadness and anger are both negative valence, but anger involve a high level of arousal whereas sadness does not)

Who proposed this?

Question 14

He proposed a single “core affect” comprising two dimensions:

1. Valence (positive to negative)
2. Arousal (low to high)

Different emotions might represent different points in this 2D space (e.g., sadness and anger are both negative valence, but anger involve a high level of arousal whereas sadness does not)

Who proposed this?

Answer 14

Russell (1994)

Question 14

Who developed Russel’s (1994) approach?

Answer 14

Barrett (2006)

Question 15

What did Barrett (2006) proposed about the construction of emotions?

Answer 15

The conceptual act theory (more recently rebranded the theory of constructed emotion)

Question 16

What does Barrett’s (2006) conceptual act theory suggest about emotions?

List 2 points

Answer 16

1. Suggests emotion is what happens when core affect is classified on the basis of existing conceptual knowledge
2. In this view, we shouldn’t expect universal neural, physiological, or behavioural correlates of, say, “happiness”

Question 17

1. Suggests emotion is what happens when core affect is classified on the basis of existing conceptual knowledge
2. In this view, we shouldn’t expect universal neural, physiological, or behavioural correlates of, say, “happiness”

What theory proposes this?

Answer 17

The conceptual act theory

Question 18

Who put forward the conceptual act theory?

Answer 18

Barrett (2006)

Question 19

Gendron et al. (2018) recently summarised the strength of evidence for the idea that there are…?

Answer 19

There are universal expressions of “basic” emotions, using data from the past 50 years.

Question 20

What did Gendron et al. (2018) argue about the newer tests of emotion perception?

Answer 20

They lead to the conclusion that “facial movements are not perceived to have uniform meanings as emotion expressions”

Question 21

Who argued that the use of newer tests of emotion perception lead to the conclusion that “facial movements are not perceived to have uniform meanings as emotion expressions”?

Answer 21

Gendron et al. (2018)

Question 22

Who recently summarised the strength of evidence for the idea that there are universal expressions of “basic” emotions, using data from the past 50 years?

Answer 22

Gendron et al. (2018)

Question 23

What is the James-Lange view of emotion?

Answer 23

We as humans experience:

1. Stimulus
   i.e. what you physically see in front of you
2. Percept
   i.e. what you perceive the stimulus to be; e.g. a lion
3. Physiological changes
   e.g. an increase in heart rate
4. Emotion

Question 24

We as humans experience:

1. Stimulus
   i.e. what you physically see in front of you
2. Percept
   i.e. what you perceive the stimulus to be; e.g. a lion
3. Physiological changes
   e.g. an increase in heart rate
4. Emotion

Which theory of emotion proposes this?

Answer 24

The James-Lange view

Question 25

“The bodily changes follow
directly the perception of the
exciting fact, and that our
feeling of the same changes
as they occur is the emotion”

Who said this?

Answer 25

James (1884) and Lange (1885)

Question 26

Who discussed the role of physiology in emotion?

Answer 26

James (1884) and Lange (1885)

Question 27

These authors independently asserted that emotions are the product of somatic change

Answer 27

James (1884) and Lange (1885)

Question 28

According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers…?

Answer 28

The activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)

Question 29

James (1884) and Lange (1885) independently claimed that emotions are the product of…?

Answer 29

Somatic change

Question 30

According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)

What happens next?

Answer 30

Signals are sent to the viscera

Question 31

According to the James-Lange view, a stimulus triggers activation in the cortex (corresponding to perception)

Signals are then sent to the viscera

What does this produce?

Answer 31

Changes in physiological state which are detected and communicated back to the cortex, at which point the “object-simply apprehended” becomes an “object-emotionally-felt”

Question 32

True or False?

According to the James-Lange view we tremble because we are afraid; we are afraid because we don’t tremble

Answer 32

False

According to the James-Lange view we don’t tremble because we are afraid; we are afraid because we tremble

Question 33

Who claimed that emotions not dependent on physiology?

Answer 33

Cannon (1927)

Question 34

What did Cannon (1927) claim about emotions and physiology?

Answer 34

Emotions are not dependent on physiology

Question 35

True or False?

People without peripheral
inputs do not experience
emotion

Answer 35

People without peripheral
inputs still experience emotion

But perhaps not as strongly

Question 36

True or False?

Peripheral arousal recreates emotion

Answer 36

False

Peripheral arousal doesn’t
recreate emotion

Question 37

Peripheral arousal doesn’t
recreate emotion

Why?

Answer 37

Because they can occur separately

Question 38

True or False?

Peripheral states are
sufficiently differentiated

Answer 38

False

Peripheral states not
sufficiently differentiated

Question 39

1. People without peripheral
   inputs still experience
   emotion (but perhaps not
   as strongly?)
2. Peripheral arousal doesn’t
   recreate emotion
3. Peripheral states not
   sufficiently differentiated

What do these claims suggest?

Answer 39

Emotions are not dependent on physiology

Question 40

Cannon (1927) claimed that separating the CNS from the viscera doesn’t abolish …?

Answer 40

Emotional experience

Question 41

Cannon (1927) claimed that ________ lack the complexity to represent/discriminate the plethora of diverse experienced emotions

Answer 41

Physiological changes

Question 42

Cannon (1927) claimed that recreating the somatic milieu of a particular emotion (e.g., raising the heart rate) does not produce the corresponding subjective experience

Answer 42

The corresponding subjective experience

Question 43

Cannon (1927) claimed that separating the ____ from the ______ doesn’t abolish emotional experience

Answer 43

a. CNS
b. Viscera

Question 44

Cannon (1927) claimed that physiological changes lack the complexity to represent/discriminate the plethora of _________

Answer 44

Diverse experienced emotions

Question 45

Cannon (1927) claimed that recreating the _________ of a particular emotion (e.g., raising the heart rate) does not produce the corresponding subjective experience

Answer 45

Somatic milieu

Question 46

What did Siegel et al. (2018) propose on emotions and physiology?

Answer 46

There’s little evidence for distinct physiological “fingerprints” for specific emotional states

i.e. it is difficult to predict specific emotions from physiology

Question 47

What did Siegel et al. (2018) use in their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?

Answer 47

Multivariate Pattern Classification Analysis

A form of machine learning that seeks to optimise the ability to classify objects (in this case emotional states) on the basis of information about them (in this case a wide range of physiological indicators)

Question 48

What did Siegel et al. (2018) find in their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?

List 3 points

Answer 48

1. Accuracy was relatively low

e.g., only 5 out of 38 instances of “disgust” were correctly predicted on the basis of the physiological variables

2. Across all emotions, the analysis correctly identified 76 out of 241 cases (31.5% correct)

3) But a score of 75/241 would have been obtained by guessing “angry” every time, so this is not especially impressive

Question 49

What did Siegel et al. (2018) conclude about their findings on their meta-analysis of 202 studies on emotions and physiology?

List 2 points

Answer 49

1. The most robust finding in the analysis was the observation of 4 substantial variation in ANS (autonomic nervous system) responding during instances of the same emotion category
2. An emotion category is a population of context-specific, highly variable instances that need not share an ANS fingerprint

Question 50

According to Siegel et al. (2018), an emotion category is a population of ____, highly variable instances that do not share an ANS fingerprint

Answer 50

Context-specific

Question 51

According to Siegel et al. (2018), an emotion category is a population of context specific, highly variable instances that do not share …?

Answer 51

An ANS fingerprint

Question 52

What did Schachter and Singer (1962) argue about emotions?

Answer 52

The effect of somatic arousal depends on its attribution (on how it is interpreted given the social and other context)

Question 53

Describe Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study demonstrating how the effect of somatic arousal depends on its attribution

List 3 points

Answer 53

1. Ps were administered adrenaline under the belief that it was a vitamin shot,
2. Ps were placed with a confederate who behaved in either a euphoric or angry fashion
3. Ps’ behaviours were observed

Question 54

In Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study:

1. Ps were administered adrenaline under the belief that it was a vitamin shot,
2. Ps were placed with a confederate who behaved in either a euphoric or angry fashion
3. Some Ps were informed that the injection might produce changes in heart rate, sweating; the rest of the Ps were “naïve
4. Ps’ behaviours were observed

What were the results? List 4 points

Answer 54

1. Naïve Ps reported more negative affect in the latter
2. Naïve Ps also exhibited more aggressive/negative behaviours
3. Ps who had been informed did not exhibited aggressive/negative behaviours
4. Ps who had been informed reported more positive affect in the negative emotional context

Question 55

What was the main limitation of Schachter and Singer’s (1962) study?

Answer 55

The results may not be very robust

Question 56

What did Zajonc et al. (1980) propose about emotions?

Answer 56

They rejected the role of cognition in emotion

Proposed that “preferences need no inferences”

Question 57

Zajonc et al. (1980) rejected the role of cognition in emotion

Why?

Answer 57

Stimuli which have been previously encountered elicit more positive affect than those which are novel, even when there is no “conscious” awareness of the past exposure

Zajonc et al. (1980) argued that “preferences need no inferences”

Question 58

What did Scherer (1984) argue about emotions and cognition?

Answer 58

Cognitive appraisals that underlie emotion do not need be conscious

Question 59

Scherer (1984) put forward various appraisal dimensions that are presumed to shape the evocation of emotion

List 4

Answer 59

1. The extent to which an event is certain under one’s own control
2. The responsibility of other people
3. Requiring of effort
4. Attention-capturing

Question 60

There is broad consensus that emotion has…?

List 5 points

Answer 60

1. A cognitive component (the evaluation of objects and events)
2. A physiological component (changes in somatic state)
3. A motivational component (action tendencies)
4. An expressive component (facial and vocal signals)
5. A subjective component (the feeling of the emotion)

Question 61

Physiological changes are an important component of ….?

Answer 61

Emotion

Question 62

True or False?

There probably aren’t clear-cut physiological “fingerprints” for specific emotion…

Answer 62

True

Question 63

True or False?

There are simple, unidirectional causal pathways between the different components of emotion

Answer 63

False

There are not simple, unidirectional causal pathways between the different components of emotion

Question 64

True or False?

Physiological changes are an important component of emotion

Answer 64

True

Question 65

How can emotions influence decision making according to Lerner et al. (2015)?

Answer 65

By consciously or non-consciously evaluating information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action

e.g., choosing a particular gamble

Question 66

According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action

What is this evaluation shaped by?

List 2 things

Answer 66

1. Characteristics of the options

(e.g., the probability of winning each possible prize)

2. The decision-maker

(e.g., the extent to which you value monetary rewards)

Question 67

According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action

What is this evaluation process presumed to be shaped by?

Answer 67

One’s current emotional state

Question 68

According to Lerner et al. (2015), we evaluate information about the possible outcomes associated with different courses of action

This evaluation process is presumed to be shaped by one’s current emotional state

What is this state shaped by? List 4 things

Answer 68

1. Background emotions that reflect relatively stable aspects of the decision-maker (e.g., chronic anxiety)
2. Transient, incidental
   responses to external events (e.g., the news that you have just been promoted)
3. The characteristics of the options (e.g., the possible outcomes and their probabilities)
4. The act of evaluation (e.g., it can be distressing to engage in a difficult choice, so your mood may worsen as you try to make the decision)

Question 69

The characteristics of the options (e.g., the possible outcomes and their probabilities) may also themselves elicit ______?

Answer 69

Emotions

e.g., fear or excitement

Question 70

What is the somatic marker hypothesis?

Answer 70

An influential account of how anticipated emotion shapes decision making

Question 71

An influential account of how anticipated emotion shapes decision making

This is known as…?

Answer 71

Somatic marker hypothesis

Question 72

What are amygdala lesions associated with in relation to emotion?

List 3 things

Answer 72

1. Reduced fear conditioning
2. Selective recognition of fear from face photos
3. Lack enhanced memory for emotional components of narrative

Question 73

1. Reduced fear conditioning
2. Selective recognition of fear from face photos
3. Lack enhanced memory for emotional components of narrative

These are associated with…?

Answer 73

Amygdala lesions

Question 74

______ arose from studies of patients with neurological damage – in particular, those with damage to the amygdala, and those with damage to the orbitofrontal cortex/ventro-medial prefrontal cortex

This is known as…?

Answer 74

The somatic marker hypothesis

Question 75

The somatic marker hypothesis (SMH) arose from studies of patients with _________

Answer 75

Neurological damage

In particular, those with damage to the amygdala, and damage to the orbitofrontal cortex/ventro-medial prefrontal cortex

Question 76

Patients DR and SE, with bilateral damage, showed selective impairment in the recognition of what emotion from from face photographs?

Answer 76

“Fear” from face photographs

But performance was normal for other emotions

Question 77

Lesions to the amygdala abolish/reduce the acquisition of what kind of emotional responses to initially neutral stimuli which are repeatedly paired with aversive outcomes

Answer 77

Fearful responses to initially neutral stimuli

Question 78

Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for ______ material

Answer 78

Emotional

Question 79

The superior recall of information about _________ pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information has been found to correlate with the size of the amygdala activation during encoding

Answer 79

Emotionally arousing

Question 80

Participants were shown a slide show with accompanying narrative which included some emotional elements (scenes of surgery) and 24 hours later answered questions about what they had seen

Controls showed better memory for the most evocative slide than for the other slides; patients with amygdala damage did not

What does this suggest?

Answer 80

Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for emotional material

Question 81

Patients with amygdala lesions show less declarative memory for emotional material

Describe a study that explores this

Answer 81

Participants were shown a slide show with accompanying narrative which included some emotional elements (scenes of surgery) and 24 hours later answered questions about what they had seen

Controls showed better memory for the most evocative slide than for the other slides; patients with amygdala damage did not

Question 82

The superior recall of information about emotionally arousing pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information has been found to correlate with …?

Answer 82

The size of the amygdala activation during encoding

Question 83

What is damage to the vmPFC associated with in relation to emotions?

List 3 things

Answer 83

1. No elevated skin conductance response (SCR) for emotional stimuli with
   “social significance”
2. More likely to “overcome an emotional response” during moral dilemma
3. Heightened emotional reactivity and hypoemotionality

Question 84

1. No elevated skin conductance response (SCR) for emotional stimuli with
   “social significance”
2. More likely to “overcome an emotional response” during moral dilemma
3. Heightened emotional reactivity and hypoemotionality

What are these associated with?

Answer 84

Damage to the vmPFC

Question 85

vmPFC lesion patients show increased ________ (e.g., frustration, irritability) and decreased ________ (i.e., they are judged to be less responsive, show blunted affect, socially withdraw)

Answer 85

a. Emotional reactivity
b. Emotionality

Question 86

When faced with moral dilemmas which pit the emotionally-charged sacrifice of one person against the greater loss of other lives, vmPFC lesion patients were more likely to choose the _______ response

Answer 86

“utilitarian”

e.g., shoving one person under a train to save five others

Question 87

Patients of vmPFC damage fail to show the elevation in _______ that usually accompanies viewing a socially-evocative slide image

Answer 87

Skin conductance response (SCR – a measure of sweating)

Question 88

Selective impairment in the recognition of “fear” from face photographs (mean 4/10 correct vs. 8.6/10 for controls; performance was normal for other emotions

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 88

b. Damage to amygdala

Question 89

Abolish/reduce the acquisition of fearful responses to initially neutral stimuli which are repeatedly paired with aversive outcomes

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 89

b. Damage to amygdala

Question 90

Patients also fail to show the elevation in skin conductance response that usually accompanies viewing a socially-evocative slide image

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 90

a. Damage to vmPFC

Question 91

Show less declarative memory for emotional material

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 91

b. Damage to amygdala

Question 92

When faced with moral dilemmas which pit the emotionally-charged sacrifice of one person against the greater loss of other lives, patients were more likely to choose the “utilitarian” response

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 92

a. Damage to vmPFC

Question 92

Show increased emotional reactivity (e.g., frustration, irritability) and decreased emotionality (i.e., they are judged to be less responsive, show blunted affect, socially withdraw)

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 92

a. Damage to vmPFC

Question 93

The superior recall of information about emotionally arousing pictures (both pleasant and unpleasant) relative to retrieval of neutral information

a. Damage to vmPFC
b. Damage to amygdala

Answer 93

b. Damage to amygdala

Question 94

Damasio et al. noted that vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of general intellect and performance on a range of neuropsychological tests

Give an example

Answer 94

For example, patient EVR “often decides against his best interest, and is unable to learn from his mistakes. His decisions repeatedly lead to negative consequences”

Question 95

Patient EVR “often decides against his best interest, and is unable to learn from his mistakes. His decisions repeatedly lead to negative consequences”

What does this show?

Answer 95

vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of general intellect and performance on a range of neuropsychological tests

Question 96

vmPFC patients often show impaired ______ ?

Answer 96

“Real life” decision-making

Question 97

vmPFC patients often show impaired “real life” decision-making, but are indistinguishable from “normal” participants in terms of ________ and _________ on a range of neuropsychological tests

Answer 97

a. General intellect
b. Performance

Question 98

Prior to developing a tumour whose removal led to vmPFC lesion, EVR was a socially-respected and successful accountant. Post-lesion, he was sacked from a succession of jobs, entered various dodgy business arrangements, was left by his wife, re-married (against family advice) and divorced again

Answer 98

However, EVR’s performance on the Wisconsin card-sorting task is perfect, he is not impulsive, his short- and long-term memory seem to be normal, and so do other tests of intellectual function

Simply = patients with vmPFC have their memory intact but emotion and decision making ability worsened

Although Damasio notes that vmPFC patients do show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them

Question 99

True or False?

vmPFC patients do not show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them

Answer 99

False

vmPFC patients do show a lack of emotional reactions in situations that would normally evoke them

Question 100

Following a tumour and lesion to the vmPFC, patient EVR had normal intellect, impulsiveness, memory
and reasoning ability, but __________ and ___________

List 2 things

Answer 100

1. Lacked emotional reactions
2. Engaged in poor real-world decision-making

Question 101

Describe Damasio’s Iowa Gambling Task

Answer 101

A model for real-life decision-making, where one must balance the possibility of big rewards with the risk of substantial losses

Question 102

A model for real-life decision-making, where one must balance the possibility of big rewards with the risk of substantial losses

This is known as…?

Answer 102

Iowa Gambling Task

Question 103

How was the Iowa Gambling Task conducted?

List 7 points

Answer 103

1. Ps are given $2000 of toy money and confronted with 4 decks of cards, labelled A, B, C, and D
2. Each card they turnover yields a reward; some also yield a penalty. The goal is to make as much money as possible
3. Ps turn over a total of 100 cards, although they don’t know how many they will be asked to turn
4. Every card in Decks A and B produces a large reward ($100) but the intermittent losses are hefty
5. Deck A gives losses of -150 to -350 every two to three cards; Deck B gives losses of -1250 every ten cards
6. Decks C and D give smaller wins of 50 but also incur smaller losses (-50 every few cards for C; -250 every 10 cards for D)
7. In the long run, choosing C or D is more advantageous than choosing A or B

Question 104

Describe Bechara et al. (1994)’s study on the Iowa Gambling Task

Answer 104

1. Gave the Iowa Gambling Task to:

a. 6 patients with ventromedial frontal lobe damage (including EVR)

b. 9 patients with other types of damage (e.g., occipital lesions)

c. 21 matched healthy participants

Question 105

1. Gave the Iowa Gambling Task to:

a. 6 patients with ventromedial frontal lobe damage (including EVR)

b. 9 patients with other types of damage (e.g., occipital lesions)

c. 21 matched healthy participants

Describe the results of Bechara et al.’s (1994) study (List 3 points)

Answer 105

1. The patients were more likely than the controls to choose the “bad” decks (those with high rewards but larger losses)
2. Trial-by-trial analysis showed that controls initially sample from all decks and then gravitated towards C and D, whereas vmPFC patients continue to draw from A and B throughout the task
3. Brain-damaged control participants performed in the same way as healthy participants

Question 106

In the Iowa Gambling Task, Bechara et al. argued that vmPFC patients cannot explicitly keep track of the gains and losses associated with each deck and must …?

Answer 106

Develop a “feeling” for which decks are risky/profitable

Question 107

In the Iowa Gambling Task, Bechara et al. argued that vmPFC patients cannot …. and must develop a “feeling” for which decks are risky/profitable

Answer 107

Explicitly keep track of the gains and losses associated with each deck

Question 108

Brain-damaged control participants performed in the same way as healthy participants

Whereas mPFC patients continue to draw the wrong pile after many trials in the Iowa Gambling Task

What does this suggest?

Answer 108

There is something lesion-specific about the choices made by vmPFC patients

Question 109

Describe the second study by Bechara et al. (1996) on the Iowa Gambling Task

Answer 109

Recorded the skin conductance response (SCR) of Ps as they played the Iowa Gambling Task

Question 110

What is SCR (also known as galvanic skin response)?

Answer 110

A measure of sweating, and is taken to indicate physiological arousal

Question 111

A measure of sweating, and is taken to indicate physiological arousal

Answer 111

SCR (also known as galvanic skin response)

Question 112

Recorded the skin conductance response (SCR) of Ps as they played the Iowa Gambling Task

What were the results of Bechara et al.’s (1996) study?

List 4 points

Answer 112

1. Reward SCRs (the reaction to the positive outcome that was initially revealed when participants turned a card) were similar for patients and controls
2. Punishment SCRs (the reaction when the card also entailed a loss, which was announced after the reward) was similar for both groups
3. There was a big difference in anticipatory responses – the arousal immediately before choosing a deck.
4. Controls show more arousal immediately prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D); patients with ventral prefrontal cortex damage show no such sensitivity

Question 113

Describe Berchara et al.’s (1999) third study on the Iowa Gambling Task

Answer 113

Used the IGT to compare patients with amygdala lesions to those with vmPFC damage

Question 114

Used the IGT to compare patients with amygdala lesions to those with vmPFC damage

What were the results of Berchara et al.’s (1999) third study on the Iowa Gambling Task?

List 3 points

Answer 114

1. Like the vmPFC patients, those with amygdala lesions did not learn to select from the good decks
2. Like vmPFC patients, amygdala lesions abolished the anticipatory SCRs that preceded selection from a bad deck
3. Unlike the vmPFC group, amygdala damage also eliminated the SCRs that accompanied the rewarding/punishing outcomes

Question 115

In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps did not learn to select from the good decks

a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients

Answer 115

b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients

Question 116

In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps abolished the anticipatory SCRs that preceded selection from a bad deck

a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients

Answer 116

b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients

Question 117

In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps eliminated the SCRs that accompanied the rewarding/punishing outcomes

a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients

Answer 117

c. amygdala lesion patients

Question 118

In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps show more arousal immediately prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D)

a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients

Answer 118

a. Control

Question 119

In the Iowa Gambling Task, which Ps do not show more arousal immediately or sensitivity prior to choosing a risky deck (A or B) than before choosing a safe one (C or D)

a. Control
b. vmPFC damage patients
c. amygdala lesion patients
d. Other brain damage patients

Answer 119

b. vmPFC damage patients

Question 120

What is amygdala involved in associating?

Answer 120

Associating particular stimuli or actions with affectively-meaningful outcomes

Question 121

What is vmPFC involved in?

Answer 121

Crucial in re-activating these representations at the time of choice

Question 122

Crucial in re-activating these representations at the time of choice

a. vmPFC
b. amygdala

Answer 122

a. vmPFC

Question 123

Associating particular stimuli or actions with affectively-meaningful outcomes

a. vmPFC
b. amygdala

Answer 123

b. amygdala

Question 124

Describe Bechara et al.’s (1997) study on what people are conscious of using the Iowa Gambling Task

List 2 points

Answer 124

1. Ps participated in IGT but were interrupted after 20 trials (when the P had experienced some gains and losses)
2. Every 10 trials thereafter, Ps were asked:

a. “Tell me all you know about what is going on in this game”

b. “Tell me how you feel about this game”

Question 125

1. Ps participated in IGT but were interrupted after 20 trials (when the P had experienced some gains and losses)
2. Every 10 trials thereafter, Ps were asked:

a. “Tell me all you know about what is going on in this game”

b. “Tell me how you feel about this game”

What did Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses into? (List 4 points)

Answer 125

1. Pre-punishment
2. Pre-hunch
3. Hunch
4. Conceptual

Question 126

Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods

What was the pre-punishment period?

Answer 126

The early stages, when people had sampled all 4 decks without encountering any losses

Neither patients nor controls generated anticipatory SCRs

Question 127

Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods

What was the pre-hunch period?

Answer 127

After a few losses (around cards 10-20) controls begin to generate anticipatory SCRs but “all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on”

Question 128

Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods

What was the hunch period?

Answer 128

After about 50 cards, normal participants expressed a “hunch” that A and B were risky and generated anticipatory SCRs when they selected these decks.

vmPFC patients did not generate anticipatory SCRs or express a hunch

Question 129

Bechara et al. (1997) divided the responses of the IGT on what people are conscious of into 4 periods

What was the conceptual period?

Answer 129

By about the 80th trial, 7/10 normal participants conceptually explained why A and B were worse than C and D.

Even the 3 who did not reach this point continued to generate anticipatory SCRs and avoided the risky decks.

3/6 patients reached the conceptual period, but none of the patients showed anticipatory SCRs and all continued to favour the “bad” decks

Question 130

The early stages, when people had sampled all 4 decks without encountering any losses

Neither patients nor controls generated anticipatory SCRs

a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch

Answer 130

c. Pre-punishment

Question 131

By about the 80th trial, 7/10 normal participants conceptually explained why A and B were worse than C and D.

Even the 3 who did not reach this point continued to generate anticipatory SCRs and avoided the risky decks.

3/6 patients reached the conceptual period, but none of the patients showed anticipatory SCRs and all continued to favour the “bad” decks

a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch

Answer 131

a. Conceptual

Question 132

After about 50 cards, normal participants expressed a “hunch” that A and B were risky and generated anticipatory SCRs when they selected these decks.

vmPFC patients did not generate anticipatory SCRs or express a hunch

a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch

Answer 132

b. Hunch

Question 133

After a few losses (around cards 10-20) controls begin to generate anticipatory SCRs but “all indicated that they did not have a clue about what was going on”

a. Conceptual
b. Hunch
c. Pre-punishment
d. Pre-hunch

Answer 133

d. Pre-hunch

Question 134

What did Bechara et al. (1997) argue about what people are conscious of?

Answer 134

In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does

Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be insufficient to ensure advantageous behaviour

Question 135

True or False?

In normal individuals, conscious biases guide behaviour before unconscious knowledge does

Answer 135

False

In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does

Question 136

In normal individuals, unconscious biases guide behaviour before conscious knowledge does

Without the help of such biases, overt knowledge may be ….?

Answer 136

Insufficient to ensure advantageous behaviour

Question 137

What is involved in the conscious element according to the somatic marker hypothesis?

List 3 points

Answer 137

1. Retrieve facts
2. Reasoning
3. Decision

Question 138

A given situation activates “dispositional knowledge” of the emotional experiences previously associated with the various options/outcomes

What hypothesis proposes this?

Answer 138

Somatic marker hypothesis

Question 139

According to the somatic marker hypothesis, a given situation activates _____ of the emotional experiences previously associated with the various options/outcomes

Answer 139

“Dispositional knowledge”

Question 140

According to the somatic marker hypothesis, a given situation activates “dispositional knowledge” of the emotional experiences previously associated with ____?

Answer 140

The various options/outcomes

Question 141

What is involved in the unconscious element according to the somatic marker hypothesis?

List 2 points

Answer 141

1. Retrieve dispositions /
   emotions
2. (Unconscious) Reactivation of somatic states

Question 142

1. Retrieve dispositions /
   emotions
2. Reactivation of somatic states

Are these unconscious or conscious elements according to the somatic marker hypothesis?

Answer 142

Unconscious elements

Question 143

1. Retrieve facts
2. Reasoning
3. Decision

Are these unconscious or conscious elements according to the somatic marker hypothesis?

Answer 143

Conscious elements

Question 144

The ______ is seen as a key structure in storing dispositional knowledge

a. Amygdala
b. vmPFC

Answer 144

b. vmPFC

Question 145

The vmPFC is seen as a key structure in storing such knowledge, whose activation is posited to trigger ____?

Answer 145

Autonomic responses

(including those which lead to skin conductance changes)

Question 146

Nonconscious processes are argued to bias the more deliberative, “cognitive” decision-making that is based on _______ about past actions and outcomes

Answer 146

Overt knowledge

Question 147

The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the emotional/somatic experiences associated with _______

Answer 147

Particular response options

Question 148

Nonconscious processes are argued to bias ______ that is based on overt knowledge about past actions and outcomes

Answer 148

The more deliberative, “cognitive” decision-making

Question 149

The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the emotional/somatic experiences associated with particular response options

These somatic changes – which may be outside conscious awareness – shape or bias …?

Answer 149

The conscious decision process

Question 150

The vmPFC (and other structures, including the amygdala) are taken to play a role in “re-living” the ________ experiences associated with particular response options

Answer 150

Emotional/somatic

Question 151

What is James-Lange view of emotion?

Answer 151

Emotion is presumed to result from the brain’s processing of somatic signals

Question 152

Based on the James-Lange view of emotion, emotion is presumed to result from the brain’s processing of somatic signals

Damasio avoids the problems associated with a crude version of this idea by …?

Answer 152

Positing an “as-if” loop

Question 153

Dunn et al (2006): “somatic markers can reflect actions of the body proper (the ‘body’ loop) or the brain’s representation of the action expected to take place in the body (the ‘as-if’ loop)

What does this mean?

Answer 153

The brain can construct a forward model of changes it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to external stimuli without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery

Question 154

The brain can construct a forward model of changes it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to _____ without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery

Answer 154

External stimuli

Question 155

What are the problems with the IGT and Somatic Marker Hypothesis?

List 4 points

Answer 155

1. We may not need somatic cues
2. Somatic cues may not signal outcomes
3. No need to posit unconscious knowledge
4. An alternative explanation for patient data

Question 156

The brain can construct a _________ it expects in the body, allowing the organism to respond more rapidly to external stimuli without waiting for that activity to actually emerge in the periphery

Answer 156

Forward model of changes

Question 157

1. We may not need somatic cues
2. Somatic cues may not signal outcomes
3. No need to posit unconscious knowledge
4. An alternative explanation for patient data

These are problems with…?

Answer 157

IGT and Somatic Marker Hypothesis

Question 158

Describe Heims et al.’s (2005) study on whether we need physiological responses to perform the IGT task

List 2 points

Answer 158

1. Examined patients with pure autonomic failure (PAF), which involves degeneration of autonomic neurons and failure of the autonomic nervous system to regulate bodily states
2. e.g. Patients do not show increased heart rate or blood pressure when under stress, and lack skin conductance responses to emotive stimuli

Question 159

1. Examined patients with pure autonomic failure (PAF), which involves degeneration of autonomic neurons and failure of the autonomic nervous system to regulate bodily states
2. e.g. Patients do not show increased heart rate or blood pressure when under stress, and lack skin conductance responses to emotive stimuli

What were the findings and conclusion?

Answer 159

1. The PAF patients were significantly more likely than controls to select the good decks
2. Certainly not
   evidence that one needs somatic changes to signal which deck to pick

Question 160

The PAF patients were significantly more likely than controls to select the good decks

What does this suggest?

Answer 160

We may not need somatic cues to perform the IGT task

Question 161

What did Damasio et al. interpret the high SCRs that precede selection from the “bad” decks as?

Answer 161

Interpreted as being a somatic representation of the negative outcomes that will follow

Question 162

Damasio et al. interpreted ___________ as being a somatic representation of the negative outcomes that will follow

Answer 162

The high SCRs that precede selection from the “bad” decks

Question 163

What did Tomb et al. (2002) point out about bad decks?

List 2 points

Answer 163

The bad decks (A and B) don’t just have net negative outcomes, they also involve much larger amounts of money (both for wins and for losses)

The variance of the outcomes from these decks is higher

Question 164

According to Tomb et al. (2002), what does the greater anticipatory SCRs reflect?

Answer 164

The uncertainty associated with selecting from one of these decks, rather than their long-run profitability

Question 165

Describe Tomb et al.’s (2002 new version of the IGT task

List 4 points

Answer 165

1. Now, the “good” decks had higher-magnitude/more variable outcomes than the “bad” ones
2. A and B always returned $2250 but had mean losses of $1500 every 10 cards
3. C and D had wins of $250 and mean losses of $1000 every 10 cards
4. So now A and B are better than C and D, despite still having larger/more variable outcomes

Question 166

Tomb et al.’s (2002 new version of the IGT task:

1. Now, the “good” decks had higher-magnitude/more variable outcomes than the “bad” ones
2. A and B always returned $2250 but had mean losses of $1500 every 10 cards
3. C and D had wins of $250 and mean losses of $1000 every 10 cards
4. So now A and B are better than C and D, despite still having larger/more variable outcomes

What were the findings?

Answer 166

In the modified version, people still chose the good decks (now A and B) but the SCRs were larger preceding selection from these decks

Question 167

In the modified version of the IGT by Tomb et al. (2002), people still chose the good decks (now A and B) but the SCRs were larger preceding selection from these decks

What does Tomb et al. (2002) argue?

Answer 167

That anticipatory physiological responses do not signal that the deck is “bad”

Question 168

Tomb et al. (2002) argued that anticipatory physiological responses do not signal that the deck is “bad”

What did Damasio et al. (2002) counter with?

List 2 points

Answer 168

1. That in the modified version of the task used by Tomb et al. (2002), the anticipatory SCRs for the “good decks” signal their “goodness”
2. But if the same physiological signals indicate both positive and negative outcomes, how can they be used to guide choice?

Question 169

In the standard IGT, people most often chose _____ and generated larger anticipatory SCRs

a. good decks (C and D)
b. bad decks (A and B)

Answer 169

a. good decks (C and D)

Question 170

In the standard IGT, people most often chose the good decks (C and D) and generated ________ when they selected from the bad decks (A and B)

Answer 170

Larger anticipatory SCRs

Question 171

What did Maia and McClelland (2004) point out in Bechara et al.’s (1997) IGT study?

List 2 points

Answer 171

1. “Good” and “Bad” decks are defined by the experimenter, based on the long-run expected returns of each

But rational behaviour from a participant should be determined by the experiences they have actually had prior to the point of choosing

E.g., if all past experience with decks A and B has been positive so far (because it’s early in the experiment and the punishments haven’t yet started) then these are the “good decks”

2. The questions that Bechara et al. (1997) used to probe “conscious knowledge” are hopelessly vague

People might well be able to articulate their understanding of the outcomes associated with each deck if we asked them more sensitive questions

Question 172

Maia and McClelland (2004) point out in Bechara et al.’s (1997) IGT study that:

“Tell me all you know about what is going on in this
game” was not a good instruction

What did they propose would be better instead?

Answer 172

For each deck:

• Rate from -10 to +10
• Estimate average net result
• Estimate average winning amount
• Estimate frequency of losses
• Estimate average loss
• Which single deck would you pick?

Question 173

Describe Maia and McClelland’s (2004) version of the IGT task

List 3 points

Answer 173

1. Ps were asked after trials 20, 30, 40… to answer a series of more penetrating questions, including rating how bad/good each deck is on a scale from -10 to +10, asking people to estimate the average winnings, frequency of losing, and average size of loss if they chose a given deck for the next 10 trials (allowing the authors to calculate people’s implicit “expected return”)
2. Ps were asked for their own estimate of the “average net result” that would come from selecting each deck for the next 10 trials.
3. The authors then looked to see whether participants’ responses indicated which two decks were “best” at each point in the study

Question 174

Describe the results of Maia and McClelland’s (2004) version of the IGT task

List 3 points

Answer 174

1. Ps explicit knowledge was good: typically about 18 of the 20 participants gave responses which indicated that they knew which decks were best, right from the first question period
2. This level of performance was often higher than their behavioural performance –people continued to explore the risky, “bad” decks on some trials
3. Looking specifically at trials where participants behaved advantageously (selected one of the two best decks, given their past experience), virtually all participants had explicit knowledge of which decks were best

Question 175

1. Ps explicit knowledge was good: typically about 18 of the 20 participants gave responses which indicated that they knew which decks were best, right from the first question period
2. This level of performance was often higher than their behavioural performance –people continued to explore the risky, “bad” decks on some trials
3. Looking specifically at trials where participants behaved advantageously (selected one of the two best decks, given their past experience), virtually all participants had explicit knowledge of which decks were best

What do these results suggest?

Answer 175

There might be “unconscious” knowledge (perhaps represented by somatic markers) that shapes decision making

But the data from Maia and McClelland (2004) show that we don’t need to posit unconscious knowledge to explain performance on the gambling task

Question 176

What did Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task?

List 2 points

Answer 176

1. In the standard IGT, the first trials from all decks are wins; losses only emerge after several cards from a given deck have been turned over
2. Patients with vmPFC lesions might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a response tendency which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive

Question 177

Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task that:

Patients with _______ might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a response tendency which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive

a. vmPFC lesions
b. amygdala lesions

Answer 177

a. vmPFC lesions

Question 178

Fellows and Farah (2005) point out about the IGT task that:

Patients with vmPFC lesions might do badly because the initial positive experiences set up a _______ which they fail to overcome once the negative outcomes for the high-stakes decks start to arrive

Answer 178

Response tendency

Question 179

What did Fellows and Farah (2005) do in their shuffled version of the IGT task?

Answer 179

They compared vmPFC patients with normal controls on the standard IGT and on a modified version in which the losses associated with each deck were made apparent within the first few selections

Question 180

In Fellows and Farah’s (2005) shuffled version of the IGT task:

They compared vmPFC patients with normal controls on the standard IGT and on a modified version in which the losses associated with each deck were made apparent within the first few selections

What were the findings? (List 2)

Answer 180

1. In the standard version, control participants chose from the good decks more often than did ventral prefrontal patients (62% vs 50%).
2. In the shuffled version, there was little difference between the participant groups: both chose from the advantageous decks most of the time (68% for patients, 72% for controls)

Question 181

1. In the standard version, control participants chose from the good decks more often than did ventral prefrontal patients (62% vs 50%).
2. In the shuffled version, there was little difference between the participant groups: both chose from the advantageous decks most of the time (68% for patients, 72% for controls)

What did Fellows and Farah (2005) conclude?

Answer 181

Patients show a deficit in reversal learning rather than a failure to associate particular choices with long-run negative outcomes

Question 182

What is the name of Dunn et al.’s (2010) modified version of the IGT?

Answer 182

Intuitive reasoning task (IRT)

Question 183

Who proposed the Intuitive reasoning task (IRT)?

Answer 183

Dunn et al. (2010)

Question 184

Describe Dunn et al.’s (2010) intuitive reasoning task (IRT)

List 4 points

Answer 184

1. On each trial participants selected from one of four decks and then had to guess whether the colour of their chosen card would match that of another card that was about to appear on-screen

A correct guess won money, an incorrect guess lost it

2. The computer was rigged such that participants’ predictions were classified as correct on 60% of trials for decks A and B but only 40% of trials for decks C and D.
3. Decks A and C involved relatively small wins/losses; decks B and D used higher-magnitude outcomes

Points won during the game translated into real financial rewards at the end

4. Heart rate and electrodermal activity (skin conductance) were recorded prior to each choice. At the end of the task, the authors also probed people’s ability to assess their own bodily states – i.e., their interoception – by having them report how many heartbeats they experienced in a certain time period and comparing this with the true number, assessed by electrocardiogram.

Question 185

The IRT avoids some of the pitfalls of the IGT

What are they? (List 3 points)

Answer 185

1. Outcome magnitude/variability is no longer confounded with “goodness” of the deck
2. There is no longer a fixed sequence of cards with a long delay before the first losses for the “bad” decks, so reversal learning is not an issue
3. Moreover, with a separate group of participants the authors followed Maia and
   McClelland’s (2004) approach to probing conscious knowledge of deck outcomes and found find little evidence for overt knowledge

They argue that the IRT really does tap “intuitive reasoning”, although probing and operationalising conscious knowledge is so fraught with difficulties that we should be sceptical about this

Question 186

Dunn et al. (2010) argued that the IRT really does tap _______, although probing and operationalising conscious knowledge is so fraught with difficulties that we should be sceptical about this

Answer 186

“Intuitive reasoning”

Question 187

What were the results of Dunn et al.’s (2010) intuitive reasoning task (IRT)?

List 4 points

Answer 187

1. On average, people chose more from the “good” decks (A and B) than the “bad” ones (C and D), and their responses were unaffected by the size of the wins/losses
2. Ps showed reduced electrodermal activity and slower heart rates prior to selecting from the good decks
3. The difference between the anticipatory response to good decks and bad decks correlated highly with behavioural performance.

That is, people who experienced larger “warning” signals in their physiology made more advantageous choices

4. Interoceptive accuracy moderated the relationship between anticipatory responses and performance: the effect of physiological warning signals prior to selection from a bad deck was more pronounced for people with good interoception

Question 188

1. On average, people chose more from the “good” decks (A and B) than the “bad” ones (C and D), and their responses were unaffected by the size of the wins/losses
2. Ps showed reduced electrodermal activity and slower heart rates prior to selecting from the good decks
3. The difference between the anticipatory response to good decks and bad decks correlated highly with behavioural performance.

That is, people who experienced larger “warning” signals in their physiology made more advantageous choices

4. Interoceptive accuracy moderated the relationship between anticipatory responses and performance: the effect of physiological warning signals prior to selection from a bad deck was more pronounced for people with good interoception

What do these results suggest? (List 2 points)

Answer 188

1. Physiological signals may guide decision-making, and that this is more pronounced for people who are “in tune” with these signals
2. More broadly, there is widespread consensus that the amygdala and vmPFC play a key role in representing and associating rewards with actions

Question 189

The SMH doesn’t offer a complete account of the role of _______, but the development and testing of the hypothesis has helped advance our understanding and clarify our thinking about this topic

Answer 189

Emotion in decision-making

Question 190

True or False?

Sensitivity to somatic signals is not important in decision making

Answer 190

False

Sensitivity to somatic signals is important in decision making

Question 191

True or False?

Psychological research has developed progressively more sophisticated conceptions of emotion

Answer 191

True

Question 192

______ exert wide-ranging influences on decision-making

Answer 192

Emotions

Question 193

Emotions exert wide-ranging influences on _____

Answer 193

Decision-making

Question 194

________ is one bold attempt to connect emotion, physiology, brain structures, and decision-making

Answer 194

The somatic marker hypothesis

Question 195

The somatic marker hypothesis is one bold attempt to connect 3 things to decision-making

What are they?

Answer 195

1. Emotion
2. Physiology
3. Brain structures

Question 196

True or False?

There are complex links between somatic states,
cognitive appraisals, and experienced emotions

Answer 196

True

Question 196

There are complex links between somatic states, __________ and __________

Answer 196

Cognitive appraisals and experienced emotions