Organisation of Concepts Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 2 cognitive models?
A
1) Hierarchical Network model
2) Spreading activation model
2
Q
What theory focuses on the role of context?
A
Situated Simulation Theory
3
Q
Name a neurocognitive model?
A
The hub and spokes model
4
Q
Semantic memory is the store of…?
A
Knowledge about the world
5
Q
Knowledge about the world is known as…?
A
Semantic memory
6
Q
What type of memory contains concepts?
a. Episodic
b. Phonetic
c. Semantic
A
c. Semantic
7
Q
Define concepts
A
Mental representations and the fundamental units of thought
e.g., concept of bird, animal etc.
8
Q
Mental representations and the fundamental units of thought
e.g., concept of bird, animal etc.
What is this known as…?
A
Concepts
9
Q
How can semantic memory concepts be organised?
List 2 ways
A
1) Hierarchical Network Model
2) Spreading activation model
10
Q
What does the Hierarchical Network model propose?
List 3 points
A
1) Semantic memory is organised into a series of hierarchical networks
2) Major concepts are represented as nodes
(e.g., animal; bird; canary)
3) Properties/features are associated with
each concept
(e.g., has wings; is yellow)
11
Q
According to this model, we can decide very rapidly that the sentence, “A canary is yellow,” is true because the concept (i.e., canary) and the property (i.e., is yellow) are stored at the same level of the hierarchy.
What model does this apply to?
A
Hierarchical Network model
12
Q
According to the Hierarchical Network model, we can decide very rapidly that the sentence, “A canary is yellow,” is true
How come?
A
Because the concept (i.e., canary) and the property (i.e., is yellow) are stored at the same level of the hierarchy
13
Q
According to this model, the sentence “A canary can fly,” should take longer because the concept and property are separated by one level in the hierarchy
What model does this apply to?
A
Hierarchical Network model
14
Q
According to the Hierarchical Network model, the sentence “A canary can fly,” should take longer to decide whether it is true or false
How come?
A
Because the concept and property are separated by one level in the hierarchy
15
Q
The sentence, “A canary has skin,” should take even longer to decide whether it is true or false
How come?
A
Because there are two levels separating the concept and property.
16
Q
According to the Hierarchical Network model, which sentence will Ps be more likely to decide very rapidly that it is true?
a. “A canary is yellow”
b. “A canary can fly”
c. “A canary has skin”
A
a. “A canary is yellow”
17
Q
According to the Hierarchical Network model, which sentence will Ps be more likely to decide is true the slowest?
a. “A canary is yellow”
b. “A canary can fly”
c. “A canary has skin”
A
c. “A canary has skin”
18
Q
Define cognitive economy
A
When properties are stored higher up to minimise redundancy/repetition
19
Q
When properties are stored higher up to minimise redundancy/repetition
This is known as…?
A
Cognitive economy
20
Q
Why is the property “can fly” stored with the bird concept rather than with the canary concept?
After all, one property of canaries is that they can fly.
A
Because it would waste space in semantic memory to have info about being able to fly stored with every bird name
21
Q
If those properties possessed by nearly all birds (e.g., can fly; has wings) are stored only at the bird node or concept, this satisfies the notion of ________?
A
Cognitive economy
22
Q
Property info is stored as high up the hierarchy as possible
Why?
A
To minimise the amount of information needing to be stored in semantic memory
23
Q
Property info is stored as _______ in the hierarchy
a. High up as possible
b. Low as possible
A
a. High up as possible
24
Q
How do we minimise the amount of information needing to be stored in semantic memory?
A
Storing property info as high up the hierarchy as possible
25
Describe the sentence verification task
List 2 points
1. Ps were told to decide as quickly as possible whether sentences are true or false
e.g. True or False?
- A canary can sing
- A canary can fly
- A canary has skin
- A canary is a fish
2. Their response times were recorded
26
Describe the results of the sentence verification task
1) Ps had higher response times (took longer) when they had to decide whether properties of canaries are T or F
e.g. Can sing, can fly, has skin
2) Ps had lower response times (quicker) when they had to decide whether categories of canaries are T or F
e.g. Is a canary, is a bird, is an animal
3) The greater the distance between the target word and its properties/ categories, the longer the response times
27
What do people often do in sentence verification tasks?
Unless information is directly linked/stored with a concept in semantic memory, we infer the answer from properties of higher nodes
28
Unless information is directly linked/stored with a concept in semantic memory, we infer the answer from properties of higher nodes
This is because making more inferences _______?
Slows down verification
29
What happens when we make more inferences?
Verification would be slower
30
What are 2 problems with the Hierarchical Network Model?
1) It does not account for familiarity
Ps are slow to verify sentences such as, “A canary has skin,” because it is very unfamiliar rather than because of the large hierarchical distance between the concept and its property
When this is controlled for, it reduces the hierarchical distance effect
2) Does not consider typicality effect
Verification is faster for more representative member categories, independent of
hierarchical/semantic distance
e.g. A penguin is a bird vs A canary is a bird
Ps respond faster to canary because it is a more typical representative of a bird compared to penguin
31
Ps respond faster to canary because it is a more typical representative of a bird compared to penguin
This is an example of...?
Typicality effect
32
Describe the typicality effect
Verification times are faster for more typical or representative member categories than atypical ones, independent of
hierarchical/semantic distance
e.g. A penguin is a bird vs A canary is a bird
The first statement takes longer because canaries are much more typical or representative of the bird category than penguins.
33
Verification times are faster for more typical or representative member categories than atypical ones, independent of
hierarchical/semantic distance
This is known as...?
Typicality effect
34
Ps are slow to verify sentences such as, “A canary has skin,” because it is very unfamiliar rather than because of the large hierarchical distance between the concept and its property
When this is controlled for, what happens to the hierarchical distance effect?
The hierarchical distance effect reduces
35
Describe the Spreading Activation Model
List 4 points
Semantic memory is organised by semantic relatedness/distance
The length of links indicates the degree of semantic relatedness
Activity at one node causes activation at other nodes via links
Spreading activation decreases as it gets further away from the original point of activation
36
Semantic memory is organised by semantic relatedness/distance
The length of links indicates the degree of semantic relatedness
Activity at one node causes activation at other nodes via links
Spreading activation decreases as it gets further away from the original point of activation
Which model does this apply to?
Spreading Activation Model
37
According to the Spreading Activation Model, activity at one node causes activation at _______ via links
Other nodes
38
Spreading activation decreases as it gets further away from ...?
The original point of activation
39
According to Spreading Activation Model, semantic memory is organised by ______?
Semantic relatedness/distance
40
According to Spreading Activation Model, the length of links indicates _____?
The degree of semantic relatedness
41
According to spreading activation theory, the appropriate node in semantic memory is activated when ______?
When we see, hear, or think about a concept.
42
Activation then spreads rapidly to other concepts, with greater activation for concepts ________________ than those ___________.
a. Closely related semantically
b. Weakly related
43
According to the Spreading Activation Model, which sentence will have strong activation?
a. A PENGUIN is a bird
b. A CANARY is a bird
b. A CANARY is a bird
44
According to the Spreading Activation Model, which sentence will have slow activation?
a. A PENGUIN is a bird
b. A CANARY is a bird
a. A PENGUIN is a bird
45
According to the Spreading Activation Model, the sentence "A PENGUIN is a bird" will have slower activation than the sentence "A CANARY is a bird"
How come? List 2 reasons
Penguin is an atypical bird and penguin and bird are weakly related
Canary is a typical bird and canary and bird are closely related semantically
46
What are Semantic Priming tasks?
When presenting one stimulus that is semantically related makes subsequent processing more efficient (e.g., faster)
47
When presenting one stimulus that is semantically related makes subsequent processing more efficient (e.g., faster)
This is known as...?
Semantic Priming tasks
48
Describe how Semantic Priming tasks are conducted
List 2 points
1) Ps are presented with a prime word
e.g. Bird
2) Ps are then presented with a target word and are told to make a decision
e.g. Eagle
49
Describe the results of Semantic Priming tasks
Decision/response related to the target word would be made faster if the prime word is semantically related
50
If Ps are presented with the prime word RED, which target word would induce more activation spread?
a. Rose
b. Butter
c. Flower
d. Feet
a. Rose
51
If the prime word is RED, which target word would induce less activation spread?
a. Rose
c. Flower
c. Flower
52
If the prime word is RED, why does the target word ROSE induce more activation spread?
Because of the semantic links between red and rose and the distance between nodes are short
53
If the prime word is RED, why does the target word FLOWER induce less activation spread?
Because although there are semantic links between red and flower, there is a lengthier link/longer distance between the nodes via an extra node
54
More activation spread =
a. Response times are faster
b. Response times are slower
a. Response times are faster
55
Less activation spread =
a. Response times are faster
b. Response times are slower
b. Response times are slower
56
What 2 things determine the strength and the speed of activation spread from one concept to the other?
1) Semantic links
2) Semantic relatedness/distance
57
Semantic links and relatedness/distance determines the ...?
Strength and the speed of activation spread from one concept to the other
58
Describe the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) Paradigm
List 3 points
1) An initial word (e.g., doctor) was selected by the researchers (the Ps don't know this) and then several words closely associated with it (e.g., nurse; sick; hospital; patient) were selected.
2) Ps were presented with words closely associated with the initial word (e.g., nurse; sick; hospital; patient) for learning
3) Ps went through a recognition memory test
59
The Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) Paradigm involved:
1) An initial word (e.g., doctor) was selected by the researchers (the Ps don't know this) and then several words closely associated with it (e.g., nurse; sick; hospital; patient) were selected.
2) Ps were presented with words closely associated with the initial word (e.g., nurse; sick; hospital; patient) for learning
3) Ps went through a recognition memory test
Describe the results
When the initial word (e.g., doctor) was presented on the recognition test, it was frequently falsely recognised.
This occurred because it was highly activated due to its close semantic relationship with all the list words.
60
When the initial word (e.g., doctor) in the Deese–Roediger–McDermott (DRM) Paradigm was presented on the recognition test, it was frequently falsely recognised
Why did this occur?
Because the word (e.g. doctor) was highly activated due to its close semantic relationship with all the list words (e.g., nurse; sick; hospital; patient)
61
Activation spreads from all the presented words to ....?
The related word(s)
62
Which model is more flexible than the other?
a. Spreading Activation Model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
a. Spreading Activation Model
63
The spreading activation model is more flexible than the hierarchical network model
What are the pros of flexibility?
The spreading activation model can account for more empirical findings
64
The spreading activation model is more flexible than the hierarchical network model
What are the cons of flexibility?
List 2 cons
1) The flexibility also reduces the specificity of the model’s predictions
2) More difficult to test
65
What are the 3 limitations of the Spreading Activation Model?
1) Assumes that each concept in semantic memory is represented by a single node (oversimplified)
The model fails to account that info about most concepts is distributed in various brain regions rather than all being represented in a single node
2) Assumes each concept has a fixed mental representation
Situation/context in which we encounter concepts changes the way we
process them
Do different people have similar representations of any given concept?
Our processing of any given concept is flexible
e.g. Piano can be viewed as heavy and musical (flexible)
a. Fred found it difficult to lift the piano
b. Fred enjoyed playing the piano
3) No consensus on the most appropriate way to measure semantic distance
66
Describe the 3 principles of Situated Simulation Theory
1) Concepts are processed in different settings
2) Their processing is influenced by the current context/setting
3) Concepts incorporate perceptual properties and motor- or action- related properties
67
1) Concepts are processed in different settings
2) Their processing is influenced by the current context/setting
3) Concepts incorporate perceptual properties and motor- or action- related properties
Which theory does this apply to?
Situated Simulation Theory
68
The Situated Simulation Theory predicts that conceptual processing involves extensive use of...?
List 2 things
1) The perceptual system
2) The motor or action system
69
Which theory/model the predicts that conceptual processing involves extensive use of the perceptual system and the motor or action system?
Situated Simulation Theory
70
Which model/theory addresses the effect of setting when dealing with concepts?
Situated Simulation Theory
71
Look at this example:
Ps are asked to think of a bicycle and describe it
Info about the tires will be activated if the Ps need to repair their bicycle, whereas the height of the saddle will be activated if they want to ride it
This supports which model/theory?
Situated Simulation Theory
72
Look at this example:
Ps are asked to think of a bicycle and describe it
Info about the tires will be activated if the Ps need to repair their bicycle, whereas the height of the saddle will be activated if they want to ride it
What does this suggest?
According to the Situated Simulation Theory, concepts reflect upon current goals
73
According to which model/theory does concepts reflect upon current goals?
Situated Simulation Theory
74
Hauk, Johnsrude, and Pulvermüller (2004) tested the notion that the motor system is often involved during access to concept information.
Describe the results of the study
1) Brain areas activated by action words are adjacent to and partly overlap with activations produced by the corresponding movement
2) Words such as lick, pick, and kick activate parts of the motor cortex
3) There was great overlap with areas activated when people make the relevant tongue, finger, and foot movements
75
Hauk, Johnsrude, and Pulvermüller (2004) tested the notion that the motor system is often involved during access to concept information.
These are the results
1) Brain areas activated by action words are adjacent to and partly overlap with activations produced by the corresponding movement
2) Words such as lick, pick, and kick activate parts of the motor cortex
3) There was great overlap with areas activated when people make the relevant tongue, finger, and foot movements
What do these results imply?
These findings do not show the motor system is necessary or required for concept processing—perhaps activation in areas within the motor strip occurs only after concept activation.
76
Miller, Brookie, Wales, Kaup, and Wallace (2018) obtained suggestive evidence that the motor system is often involved when we access concept information
Describe what happened in the study (List 3 points)
1) Ps were instructed to read hand-associated words (e.g., knead; wipe) or foot-associated words (e.g., kick; sprint)
2) Ps then made hand or foot responses after reading the words
3) Response times were recorded
77
Miller, Brookie, Wales, Kaup, and Wallace (2018) obtained suggestive evidence that the motor system is often involved when we access concept information:
1) Ps were instructed to read hand-associated words (e.g., knead; wipe) or foot-associated words (e.g., kick; sprint)
2) Ps then made hand or foot responses after reading the words
3) Response times were recorded
Describe the results of the study
Responses were faster when the word was compatible with the limb making the response than when word and limb were incompatible.
(e.g., hand response was faster if Ps previously read a hand-associated word)
(e.g. foot response was faster if Ps previously read a foot-associated word)
78
According to Barsalou, “The understanding of action verbs requires the activation of ...?”
The motor areas used to carry out the named action
79
Responses were the fastest when...?
a. Hand responses made after reading hand-associated words
b. Hand responses made after reading foot-associated words
c. Foot responses made after reading hand-associated words
a. Hand responses made after reading hand-associated words
80
Responses were the slowest when...?
a. Hand responses made after reading hand-associated words
b. Foot responses made after reading foot-associated words
c. Foot responses made after reading hand-associated words
c. Foot responses made after reading hand-associated words
81
What is the overall assumption/conclusion of Situated Simulation Theory?
Processing of concepts depends on the situation + the perceptual and motor processes in a given task
82
According to the Situated Simulation Theory, processing of concepts depends on 2 things
What are they?
1) The situation
2) The perceptual and motor processes in a given task
83
Why does concept processing vary across situations depending on the individual’s goals?
Simply = How come the precise way we process a concept depends on the situation and the perceptual and motor processes engaged by the current task?
Because according to the Situated Simulation Theory, processing of concepts depends on the situation + the perceptual and motor processes in a given task
84
What are the 2 main limitations of Situated Simulation Theory?
1) How variable are concepts across situations?
The SST exaggerates the extent to which concept processing varies across time and across situations or contexts
Concepts = stable core + context-dependent elements
Concept processing often includes perceptual and/or motor features does not mean it is generally necessary to use perceptual and/or motor processes to understand concepts
2) Are these properties secondary – after concept meaning has been accessed?
Perceptual and motor processes may not be necessary and may even occur after concept meaning has been accessed
85
Name the 2 approaches/hypotheses which discusses where semantic memories are stored?
1) Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
2) Feature-based Approach
86
Semantic memories are represented in the brain as whole objects
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
87
Different kinds of information about a given object are stored in separate brain regions
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
b. Feature-based Approach
88
Each object/concept has its own node or neuron
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
89
e.g. Visual information is stored in one part of the brain, while the auditory linked with that object is stored in another
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
b. Feature-based Approach
90
e.g. There’s a special neuron representing your grandmother
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
91
Types of nodes are grouped together (e.g. all living things)
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
92
This view is becoming increasingly popular
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
b. Feature-based Approach
93
Describe the Feature-based Approach
Emphasises that different kinds of info about a given object are stored in separate brain regions
e.g. Visual information is stored in one part of the brain, while the auditory linked with that object is stored in another
94
Describe the Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
Semantic memories are represented in the brain as whole objects
Each object/concept has its own node or neuron
e.g. There’s a special neuron representing your grandmother
Types of nodes are grouped together (e.g. all living things)
95
Everything we know about any given object or concept is stored at a single location within the brain
Which does this statement apply to?
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
b. Feature-based Approach
a. Grandmother Cell Hypothesis
96
What is the name of a hybrid model of semantic memory?
Hub-and- spoke model
97
Which model is a hybrid model of semantic memory?
a. Hub-and- spoke model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
c. Spreading Activation Model
a. Hub-and- spoke model
98
According to the Hub-and- spoke model, what is the Hub?
Modality- independent conceptual representations
99
Provides an efficient way of integrating our knowledge of any given concept
Does this apply to:
a. Hub
b. Spokes
a. Hub
100
Modality- independent conceptual representations
Does this apply to:
a. Hub
b. Spokes
a. Hub
101
According to the Hub-and- spoke model, what are the Spokes?
Modality-specific brain areas
Sensory and motor processing occur
102
According to the Hub-and- spoke model, what are the six spokes?
1) Visual features
2) Verbal descriptors
3) Olfaction (smell)
4) Sounds
5) Praxis (motor info)
6) Somatosensory info (sensations from the skin and internal organs)
103
1) Visual features
2) Verbal descriptors
3) Olfaction (smell)
4) Sounds
5) Praxis (motor info)
6) Somatosensory info (sensations from the skin and internal organs)
Are these part of the spokes or the hub?
Spokes
104
Modality-specific brain areas
Sensory and motor processing occur
Does this apply to:
a. Hub
b. Spokes
b. Spokes
105
It is assumed within the Hub-and- spoke model that hubs are located within the ...?
Anterior temporal lobes
106
It is assumed within the Hub-and- spoke model that spokes are located within the ...?
Cortical areas of the brain
107
Describe Ishibashi et al.'s (2018) tDCS study
List 2 points
1) Ps performed tasks requiring rapid access to semantic info. They were presented with sentences concerning:
a. Tool function (e.g., "scissors are used for cutting")
b. Or tool manipulation (e.g., "pliers are gripped by the handles").
2) Researchers applied anodal tDCS (a weak electric current to various brain areas) to the inferior parietal lobule and the anterior temporal lobe
108
Ishibashi et al.'s (2018) tDCS study involved:
1) Ps performed tasks requiring rapid access to semantic info. They were presented with sentences concerning:
a. Tool function (e.g., "scissors are used for cutting")
b. Or tool manipulation (e.g., "pliers are gripped by the handles").
2) Researchers applied anodal tDCS (a weak electric current to various brain areas) to the inferior parietal lobule and the anterior temporal lobe
Describe the results of this study
List 2 points
1) Tool manipulation task was enhanced when tDCS was applied to IPL
2) Increased performance in both tool function and tool manipulation when tDCS applied to ATL
109
What problems do patients with semantic dementia face?
They have severe problems in accessing the meanings of words and concepts
But have good executive functioning in the early stages of deterioration.
110
What is semantic dementia?
A condition involving damage to the anterior temporal lobe
111
A condition involving damage to the anterior temporal lobe
Where patients have severe problems in accessing the meanings of words and concepts
This is known as...?
Semantic dementia
112
Give 2 examples of general semantic deficits
1) Naming objects
2) Sorting objects in categories
113
Patients with semantic dementia eventually lose the ability to speak since they can't name things
This suggests they have problems with:
a. The hub
b. The spokes
a. The hub
114
List an example of category-specific deficits
Greater difficulty identifying/naming living than nonliving objects
115
Greater difficulty identifying/naming living than nonliving objects
This is known as...?
a. Semantic dementia
b. Category-specific deficits
b. Category-specific deficits
116
Semantic deficits in naming objects
This is known as...?
a. Semantic dementia
b. Category-specific deficits
a. Semantic dementia
117
Semantic deficits in sorting objects in categories
This is known as...?
a. Semantic dementia
b. Category-specific deficits
a. Semantic dementia
118
What did patients K.C. and E.W. struggle with?
a. Semantic dementia
b. Category-specific deficits
b. Category-specific deficits
119
Patients K.C. and E.W. struggled with category-specific deficits.
What were they able to do?
They were able to correctly name pictures of non- living things:
e.g., car and table, fruits and vegetables
120
Patients K.C. and E.W. struggled with category-specific deficits.
What were they not able to do/performed poorly with?
They performed poorly when asked to name
pictures of living animals compared to non-animals
121
Patients who are able to correctly name pictures of non- living things (e.g. table) but struggle to correctly name pictures of living things (e.g. animals)
What is this condition known as...?
a. Semantic dementia
b. Category-specific deficits
b. Category-specific deficits
122
True or False?
There have been increasing evidence that concepts are organized in hub (core) + spokes (modality-specific)
True
123
What are 4 limitations to the Hub-and- spoke model?
1) The role of anterior temporal lobe may be more complex
2) Does familiarity with concepts affect their organisation in the hub
3) How many ”spokes”
4) How is information integrated between the spokes and the hub?
124
Suggests that concepts are organised in a hierarchical way with nodes and features along a hierarchy
a. Spreading Activation Model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
c. Hub-and-Spoke model
d. Episodic model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
125
Stresses semantic relatedness and distance between concepts
a. Spreading Activation Model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
c. Hub-and-Spoke model
d. Episodic model
a. Spreading Activation Model
126
Provides a neurobiological way that concepts are organized incorporating modality- general (hub) and modality-specific (spokes) features
a. Spreading Activation Model
b. Hierarchical Network Model
c. Hub-and-Spoke model
d. Episodic model
c. Hub-and-Spoke model
127
According to Barsalou concepts incorporate perceptual and motor features and their processing is affected by ...?
The context in which they are encountered
