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ALS 2304 > Endocrine Physiology > Flashcards

Endocrine Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine System

A

-2nd great controlling system
-hormones
-pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pineal, and thymus glands
-pancreas, gonads to hormones + exocrine secretions
-Hypothalamus: neural functions + hormone release (pit)
-Adipose tissue
-Exocrine release into the body but outside the bloodstream.

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2
Q

How do hormones cause effects in their target cells?

A

receptors

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3
Q

Paracrines

A

Communicate with neighboring cells
-interleukins + interferons from WBC

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4
Q

Autocrines

A

Act on the cell that secreted it, self-stimulation
-histamine in inflammation

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5
Q

Neurotransmitters

A

Released by neurons into synapse (gap between neurons)
-acetylcholine

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6
Q

Hormones

A

Released by endocrine glands, secreted into interstitial fluid, diffuse to blood and travel to distant target
-insulin

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7
Q

Neurohormones (neuroendocrine)

A

Neurotransmitter released and travels outside brain
-antidiuretic hormone

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8
Q

Amines

A

epinephrine /norepinephrine come from tyrosine

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9
Q

Thyroxine

A

tyrosine cleaved off of thyroglobulin + iodine, GENE EXPRESSION

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10
Q

Peptide/Protein

A

ACTH, oxytocin, growth hormone, GENE EXPRESSION

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11
Q

Amino acid-based (majority)

A

-Amines
-Thyroxine
-Peptide/Protein

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12
Q

Lipid-based

A

Cholesterol-based
-steroids=gonadal (testosterone) and adrenocortical (cortisol) hormones
Fatty acid-based (arachidonic acid)
-eicosanoids= leukotrienes and PROSTAGLANDINS (PGE2, PGD2)

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13
Q

Fatty-Acid Based Hormones: Prostaglandins

A

-made throughout the body by most cell types
-fatty acids (mostly in cell membrane) are the starting substrate
-enzymes convert the fatty acid (arachidonic acid) into a hormone (prostaglandins) in the cell membrane
-It is a hormone once it is release into the bloodstream
-Prostaglandins act on cell surface g-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)
-GPCR signaling inside the cell eventually affects gene expression in the nucleus

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14
Q

What are steroids made from?

A

cholesterol

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15
Q

Cholesterol-Based Steroid Hormones

A

-Steroid hormones are released into the blood and diffuse easily into their target cells
-Steroid bind and activate a specific receptor inside target cell
-Hormone-receptor complex enters nucleus and affects gene expression
-Nuclear receptors are transcription factors!
-Cholesterol can cross cell membranes and act inside the nucleus as transcription factors, act as an activator
-Hormone-receptor complex binds to a response element on the DNA

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16
Q

Recep on Steroids

A

-Steroids hormones are made from CHOLESTEROL
-Whether a certain one will be made in a certain cell at a certain time depends on whether the RIGHT ENZYMES ARE EXPRESSED (MADE)
-The cholesterol-like structure allows steroids to diffuse across plasma membrane and enter cell
-steroids bind to receptors inside of cell that allow them to enter NUCLEUS AND BIND DNA to regulate transcription (nuclear receptors are transcription factors!)

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17
Q

Peptide Hormones

A

-comprised of amino acids
-made through gene expression and the secretory pathway
-cleaved from the protein after translation
-Most act on G-protein-coupled receptors (cell surface)

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18
Q

Amino acids

A

serve as building blocks for protein (translation), substrate for enzymatic conversion into some hormones, and some act as neurotransmitters
-formed by enzymatic synthesis or provided through diet, ~20 protein-containing AA

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19
Q

Peptides

A

2 or more amino acids joined by peptide bond
-most formed by enzymatic cleavage of protein (digestion in gut, NEUROPEPTIDE AND PEPTIDE HORMONE SYNTHESIS)

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20
Q

Proteins

A

usually larger than polypeptides, usually 50 to 1000 AA
-formed by TRANSLATION at a ribosome. Hormone=secretory pathway
-Proteins are genome encoded
a) gene expression
b)50 or more amino acids

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21
Q

Hormone Synthesis 1. Synthesis and storage

A

-hormones is synthesized and then stored in secretory vesicles
-nucleus (DNA to mRNA
-Ribosomes (Preprohormone (the protein))
-Endoplasmic reticulum (Prohormone (the protein))
-Golgi apparatus, stored in secretory vesicles (peptide hormone)
-Into blood!
-The Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi are the secretory pathway

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22
Q

Hormone Synthesis 2. Transport

A

-upon release, travels freely in the blood
-peptide hormone

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23
Q

Hormone Synthesis 3. Binding and effects

A

-bind membrane receptors, initiate protein modification and synthesis
-hormone-receptor complex activates second messenger systems.
-happens on cell membrane

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24
Q

What are two major ways that a hormone can transduce a signal to change function in a cell?

A
  1. Cell surface RECEPTOR (like G-protein): signal transmitted to intracellular messengers that eventually affect transcription
  2. Nuclear RECEPTOR inside of cell that binds DNA (transcription factor) to directly affect transcription
    -steroids act as transcription receptors.
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25
Q

Cell Surface Receptors: G Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)

A

-peptide can’t penetrate plasma membrane
-receptor binds ligand (peptide hormone)
-binding causes a conformational change in receptor
-The G-alpha protein dissociates
-G-alpha protein causes signaling inside cell
-3 SIGNALING PATHWAYS TO KNOW FOR THIS CLASS GAS, GAI, AND GAQ

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26
Q

Gas

A

this type STIMULATES (s= “stimulatory”) adenylyl cyclase (AC)

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27
Q

Gai

A

This INHIBITS (i= “inhibitory”) adenylyl cyclase, lowering the level of cAMP in the cell.

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28
Q

Gaq

A

This activates PHOSPHOLIPASE C (PLC), which generates the second messengers inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG)

29
Q

GPCR Pathway: Gaq

A

-ligand binds receptor , activates G protein
-G protein activates a phospholipase enzyme
-Phospholipase splits the phospholipid PIP2 into diacylglycerol (DAG) and IP3 (both act as second messengers)
-DAG activates protein kinases; IP3 triggers release of Ca2+ stores
-Ca2+ (third messenger) alters cellular responses

30
Q

How many hormones does the dual-lobed have?

A

Nine

31
Q

Neurohypophysis

A

-posterior lobe (neural tissue) and the infundibulum (stalk that connects hypothalamus to pituitary)
-receives, stores, and releases hormones from the hypothalamus
-hormone delivered via nerves

32
Q

Adenohypophysis

A

-anterior lobe, made up of glandular tissue
-synthesizes and secretes hormones into blood
-told by hypothalamus to produce/release hormones via blood signals

33
Q

Major Hormonal Cascades

A

-Growth
-Stress
-Lactation
-Metabolism

34
Q

Growth Hormone (GH): Regulation of Growth

A

-synthesized by somatotropic cells (somatotrophs) of anterior
-stimulates most cells, but targets bone and skeletal muscle
-promotes protein synthesis + encourages use of fats for fuel
-most effects are mediated indirectly by somatomedin
-stimulates uptake of amino acids from blood
-mobilizes fats

35
Q

Growth Hormone GHRH

A

-growth hormone releasing hormone
-stimulates growth hormone release

36
Q

Growth Hormone GHIH

A

-Growth Hormone Inhibiting Hormone
-AKA Somatostatin (SS) inhibits Growth Hormone release

37
Q

What do feedback loops do?

A

-ensure balance
-avoid over- or under- stimulation

38
Q

Where does IGF1 go?

A

Into the blood

39
Q

Recep on Growth

A

-Big picture: GH increase growth
-Medium picture: Hypothalamic - pituitary - live: feedback loops
-Small picture: GHRH and SS bind GPCR G-alpha

40
Q

How you define stress?

A

-stimulus of a threat

41
Q

Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH; corticotropin) and stress

A

-stimulates adrenal cortex -> release corticotropin
-triggered by hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
-Internal and external factors such as fever, hypoglycemia, and stressors can trigger the release of CRH

42
Q

Pro-Opiomelanocortin (POMC)

A

-a protein
-multiple hormones can be made from the same protein
-POMC is where ACTH and B-Endorphin come from

43
Q

What hormones can be made from arachidonic acid?

A

Prostaglandins and leukotrienes

44
Q

What hormones can be made from cholesterol?

A

-Aldosterone
-cortisol/corticosterone
-testosterone

45
Q

Where are ACTH and endorphins from?

A

-the POMC protein

46
Q

Stress Response Hormone

A

-epinephrine
-cortisol (HPA)
-endorphins

47
Q

What does cortisol activate?

A

nuclear receptors

48
Q

What are effects of long-term cortisol release?

A

-weakened immune system
-anxiety, depression, and headaches
-nerve problems
-digestive issues
-high blood pressure
-high blood sugar
-heart disease

49
Q

Big picture of stress cascade

A

ACTH released in response to stress

50
Q

Medium picture of stress cascade

A

-hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)
-feedback loops

51
Q

Small picture of stress cascade

A

-CRH binds to GPCR
-G-alpha, ACTH binds GPCR
-G-alpha and or -q

52
Q

What does dopamine do to prolactin?

A

inhibits it

53
Q

What hormone regulates blood calcium and keeps blood calcium from getting to high?

A

Parathyroid

54
Q

What hormone regulates blood calcium and keeps blood calcium from getting to high?

A

calcitonin

55
Q

Big picture of the regulation of lactation

A

prolactin and oxytocin: milk synthesis and letdown

56
Q

Medium picture of the regulation of lactation

A

hypothalamus-pituitary-mammary; feedback loops

57
Q

Small picture of the regulation of lactation

A

dopamine binds GPCR: G-alpha i, oxytocin binds GPCR: G-alpha q

58
Q

What does parathyroid hormone (PTH) do to bone?

A

-tells the bone to release calcium
-bone activates osteoclasts; calcium and phosphate ions release into blood

59
Q

What does parathyroid hormone (PTH) do to the kidneys?

A

-tells them to prevent calcium from leaving in urine
-promotes activation of vitamin D and increase calcium reabsorption

60
Q

What does parathyroid hormone (PTH) do to the intestines?

A

-tells them to increase absorption from diet

61
Q

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Effects

A

-PTH increase release (Ca2+ blood)
-stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix
-enhances the reabsorption of Ca2+ and secretion of phosphate by the kidneys
-increase absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal cells
-increase (Ca2+ blood) inhibits PTH release

62
Q

Calcitonin

A

-peptide hormone produced by the parafollicular, or c, cells of thyroid
-decrease blood calcium
-opposes parathyroid hormone (PTH)
-calcitonin -> skeleton
-regulated by blood calcium ion, negative feedback

63
Q

What happens when calcitonin inhibits osteoclast activity?

A

inhibits bone reabsorption and release of calcium

64
Q

What happens when calcitonin stimulates osteoclast activity?

A

calcium uptake and incorporation into bone

65
Q

Recap on Major Hormonal Casades

A

-growth hormone and growth
-ACTH and stress
-prolactin/oxytocin and milk production

66
Q

What is the big picture of the major hormonal cascades?

A

hormone regulates physiological processes

67
Q

What is the medium picture of the major hormonal cascades?

A

cascades hypothalamus, pituitary, target organ and feedback loops

68
Q

What is the small picture of the major hormonal cascades?

A

G protein-coupled receptor signaling in a cell, gene expression in a cell, and metabolism in a cell

ALS 2304 (5 decks)

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