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anatomy and physiology > endocrine system and respiratory > Flashcards

endocrine system and respiratory Flashcards

1
Q

endocrinology

A

the scientific study of hormones and endocrine glands.

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2
Q

what processes do hormones control

A

reproduction
growth and development
mobilizing body defences against stressors
maintaining electrolyte
water and nutrient balance of the blood
regulating cellular metabolism and energy balance.

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3
Q

what are hormones

A

Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine cells into the extracellular fluids that regulate the metabolic activity of other cells in the body.

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4
Q

what are the classifications of hormones

A

1) amino acid-base molecules- including proteins, peptides and amines
2) steroids- they are made from cholesterol. include the sex hormones and the hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
3) prostaglandins- hormones that act locally. they are made from highly active lipids released from nearly all cell membranes.

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5
Q

what is target cells or organs

A

cells where the hormone activity occurs

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6
Q

what are hormones able to do?

A

-change plasma membrane permeability or membrane potential (electrical state) by opening or closing ion channels
-activate or inactivate enzymes
-stimulate or inhibit cell division
-promote or inhibit secretion of a product
-turn on or turn off transcription of certain genes (such as those encoding proteins or regulatory molecules)

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7
Q

describe the process of direct gene activation and which hormones undergo this type of action?

A

Steroid and Thyroid hormones

  1. Because steroid hormones are lipid-soluble molecules, the steroid hormones can diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells.
  2. The steroid hormones enter the nucleus.
  3. And binds to a specific hormone receptor.
  4. The hormone receptor complex then binds to specific sites on the cells DNA.
  5. Activating certain genes to transcribe messenger RNA (mRNA).
  6. The mRNA is translated in the cytoplasm, resulting in the synthesis of new proteins.
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8
Q

describe the process of second messenger system and which hormones undergo this system?

A

Amino-acid based hormones

  1. The hormone (first messenger) binds to the receptor protein on the membrane.
  2. The activated receptor sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme.
  3. The enzyme, catalyses reactions that produce second-messenger molecules.
  4. cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate) oversees additional intracellular changes that promote the typical response of the target cell to the hormone.
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9
Q

what is a hormonal stimulus

A

The most common stimulus in which endocrine organs are prodded into action by other hormones. for example the hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the anterior pituitary gland to secrete its hormones and many ant pituitary hormones stimulate other endocrine organs to release their hormones into the blood.

bloodborne chemicals

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10
Q

what is a humoral stimulus

A

Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients may also stimulate hormone release.

Example a decreasing blood calcium ion level in the capillaries serving the parathyroid glands prompts the release of parathyroid hormone.

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11
Q

what is a neural stimulus

A

When nerve fibers from the nervous system stimulate hormone release and the endocrine cells respond to neural stimuli

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12
Q

what is the major difference between endocrine and exocrine glands

A

Endocrine glands are ductless glands that produce hormones that they release directly into the blood or lymph (Endocrine glands have a rich blood supply).

The exocrine glands release their products at the body’s surface or into body cavities through ducts (Exocrine glands have a exit).

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13
Q

which part of the pituitary gland is formed from nerves and which into direct blood

A

nerve fibers- posterior pituitary gland

blood- anterior pituitary gland

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14
Q

which two hormones does the posterior pituitary gland produce

A

-ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)
-Oxytocin

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15
Q

which hormones does the Anterior pituitary gland produce

A

-GH (Growth hormone)
-FSH
-LH
-Thyrotrophic hormone
-Adrenocorticotropic hormone
-prolactin

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16
Q

What is the function of Oxytocin

A

Peptide- Stimulates contraction of the uterus and the milk reflex.

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17
Q

What is the function of ADH

A

Peptide- Promotes retention of water by the kidneys.

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18
Q

What is the function of Growth Hormone (GH)

A

Protein- Stimulates growth especially of bones and muscles and metabolism.

It causes fats to be broken down and used for energy while it spares glucose, helping to maintain blood sugar levels.

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19
Q

What is the function of Prolactin

A

Protein- Stimulates milk production after childbirth in the mothers breast. Function in men is not known.

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20
Q

What is the function of FSH in both men and women

A

Women- Stimulates follicular development in the ovaries.

Men- Stimulates sperm development by the testes.

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21
Q

What is the function of LH in both men and women

A

Women- Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary.

Men- Stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells of the testes.

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22
Q

What is the function of TSH (Thyroid stimulating hormone)

A

stimulates metabolism

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23
Q

What is the function of Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

A

stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

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24
Q

What are the characteristics of hormones from anterior pituitary

A
  • are proteins (peptides)
    -act through second messenger systems
    -regulated by hormonal stimuli and in most cases negative feedback
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25
Q

what is the function of melatonin

A

Appears to be secreted in substantial amounts. the level of melatonin rises and falls during the course of the day and night. melatonin is believed to be the “sleep trigger” and plays an important role in the body’s sleep-wake cycle.
it is believed to coordinate the hormones of fertility and to inhibit the reproductive system until the body matures.

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26
Q

What two hormones does the thyroid gland produce

A

Thyroid hormone
Calcitonin

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27
Q

What is the function of calcitonin

A

Decreases the blood calcium ion level by causing calcium to be deposited in the bones.

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28
Q

Explain how calcitonin is used in regulating calcium levels in the blood

A

A high blood calcium level:
The stimulus in the Blood is a high level of calcium which leads to the thyroid gland releasing calcitonin and then calcitonin stimulates calcium salt to be deposited in the bone, which then lowers the calcium levels in the blood.

A Low blood calcium level:
The stimulus is a low level of calcium in the blood which stimulates the parathyroid gland to release parathyroid hormone, which makes osteoclasts degrade bone matrix and release it into the blood in order to increase the calcium levels in the blood.

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29
Q

what hormone does the thymus release

A

Thymosin

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30
Q

what is the function of thymosin

A

The thymus produces Thymosin and others that appear to be essential for normal development of a special group of white blood cells (T lymphocytes) and the immune response.

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31
Q

What are the three major groups of steroid hormones that the adrenal Cortex produces and where are they located

A

mineralocorticoids- outer layer
glucocorticoids- middle layer
sex hormones- inner layer

32
Q

what do the mineralocorticoids do

A

Mainly aldosterone operate used by the outermost adrenal Cortex cell layer. they are important in regulating the mineral or salt content of the blood, particularly the sodium and potassium ions that help regulate water and electrolyte balance in the body

33
Q

what do the glucocorticoids do

A

They promote normal cell metabolism and help the body to resist long-term stressors, they seem to control more unpleasant effects of inflammation by decreasing edema and they reduce pain by inhibiting the pain-causing prostaglandins. they have inflammatory properties and are often prescribed as drugs to surpress inflammation.

34
Q

what is the function of renin

A

An enzyme produced by the kidneys when blood pressure drops also causes the release of aldosterone by triggering a series of reactions that form angiotensin 2

35
Q

what is angiotensin 2 release

A

A Potent stimulator of aldosterone release

36
Q

what is the function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

A hormone released by the heart that prevents aldosterone release. It’s main goal is to reduce blood volume and blood pressure.

37
Q

what is the collective term for epinephrine and norepinephrine

A

catecholamines

38
Q

what are the functions of the catecholamines

A

The adrenal medulla is stimulated when you feel threatened physically or emotionally a fight or flight response
The increase heart rate blood pressure and blood glucose level and dilate the small passages of the lungs therefore more oxygen and glucose in the blood and faster circulation of the blood to body organs.

39
Q

describe the homeostasis of a high level of glucose in the blood

A

A high level of glucose stimulates the release of insulin from the beta cells of the Islets. insulin act on just about all body cells increasing their ability to import glucose across the Plasma membranes once inside cells glucose is oxidised for energy or converted to glycogen for fat or storage.

40
Q

describe the homeostasis of a low level of glucose in the blood

A

Glucagon acts as an antagonistic of insulin it’s released by the alpha cells of the Islets is stimulated by a low blood level of glucose. Its primary target organ is the Liver which stimulates to break down stored glycogen to glucose and to release the glucose into the blood

41
Q

what is the function of estrogen and progesterone

A

Estrogens are responsible for the development of sex characteristics growth and maturation of reproductive organs

Progesterone helps repair breast tissue for lactation prevents endometrium lining from breaking down

42
Q

What is the function of testosterone

A

-testosterone promotes maturation of all the reproductive system organs to prepare a man for reproduction.

-testosterone is necessary for male secondary characteristics -

-continuous production of sperm

43
Q

what is the function of hCG

A

Human chorionic gonadotrophin stimulates the ovaries to continue producing estrogen and progesterone to maintain the linning of the uterus.

44
Q

what is the function of hPL (Human placental lactogen)

A

prepares the breasts for lactation

45
Q

relaxin in terms of the placenta

A

Causes the mothers pelvic ligaments and pubic symphysis to relax and become more flexible, which eases birth passage.

46
Q

what is the function of prostaglandins

A

How many targets but act locally at sites of release example
-increased blood pressure by acting as vasoconstrictors
-cause constriction of respiratory passageways
-simulate muscle of the uterus
-promoting menstrual pain and labour
-enhance blood clotting
-promote inflammation and pain
-increase output of digestive secretions by the stomach
-cause fever

47
Q

what is the function of gastrin

A

Stomach- stimulate glands to release hydrochloric acid

48
Q

what is the function of instestinal gastrin

A

stomach- stimulates gastric glands and motility

49
Q

what is the function of secretin

A

Pancreas -stimulate release of bicarbonate rich juice
liver-increases release of bile
stomach-reduces secretions and motility

50
Q

what is the function of cholecystokinin

A

Pancreas-stimulates release of enzyme rich juice gallbladder- stimulate expulsion of stored bile
Duodenal papilla causes sphincter to relax allowing bile and pancreatic juice to enter duodenum

51
Q

what is the function of Erythropoeitin

A

Bone marrow stimulate production of red blood cells

52
Q

what is the function of active vitamin D3

A

Intestines-stimulate active transport of dietary calcium ions across intestinal cell membranes

53
Q

what is the function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

A

kidney-inhibit Sodium Ion reabsorption and renin release
adrenal Cortex-inhibits secretion of aldosterone thereby decreasing blood volume and blood pressure

54
Q

what is the function of leptin

A

Brain- suppresses appetite and increases energy expenditure

55
Q

what is the function of resistin

A

fat muscle liver antagonises insulin’s action on liver cells

56
Q

what are the organs of the respiratory system in order

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.

57
Q

what happens if anything other than air enters the larynx?

A

a cough reflex is triggered to prevent the substance from continuing into the lungs

58
Q

what is the function of the epiglottis

A

the epiglotttis protects the superior opening of the larynx
the epiglottis is usually upright at rest allowing air to pass into the larynx and lungs. when a person swallows food, the epiglottis folds backwards to cover the entrance of the larynx. this routes food into the esophagus and air into the lower respiratory passages

59
Q

what is the function of the c-shaped rings in the trachea

A

they serve a double purpose
reinforces the anterior and lateral sides of the trachea to protect and maintain the airway open. the cartilaginous rings are incomplete because this allows the trachea to collapse slightly to allow food to pass down the esophagus.

60
Q

how many lobes does the left and right lung have

A

right- 3 lobes
left- 2 lobes

61
Q

what are the four events of breathing

A

1) Pulmonary ventilation- breathing, air must move into and out of the lungs so that the gases in the alveoli are continuously refreshed.

2) External respiration- gas exchange (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading) between the pulmonary blood and alveoli. gas exchanges are being made between the blood and body exterior.

3) Respiratory gas transport- oxygen and carbon dioxide must be transported to and from the lungs and tissue cells of the body via the bloodstream.

4) Internal respiration- at systemic capillaries, gas exchange occurs between the blood and cells inside the body. this time oxygen is unloaded and carbon dioxide is loaded from the blood.

62
Q

Residual volume

A

Air remaining in the lungs after exhalation that cannot be voluntarily exhaled approx 1200ml

63
Q

Expiratory reserve volume

A

The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled beyond tidal expiration approx 1200ml

64
Q

functional residual capacity (FRC)

A

The maximal volume of air that can be inhaled following normal exhalation. It consists of the tidal volume and the inspiratory reserve volume.

65
Q

Spirometry

A

Measurement of the breathing capacity of the lungs.

66
Q

Tidal volume

A

The amount of air that moves into or out of the lungs during a normal breath. approx 500ml

67
Q

Total lung capacity (TLC)

A

The volume of air in the lungs following maximal inhalation, it is the sum of all the lung volumes (approximately 5000 to 5,500 ml).

68
Q

Vital capacity (VC)

A

The total amount of exchangeable air (women- 3100 ml and in men- 4 800 ml)

69
Q

Inspiratory reserve volume

A

The amount of air that can be taken in forcibly above the tidal volume approx 3100ml.

70
Q

dead space volume

A

The volume of ventilated air that does not participate in gas exchange. approx 350ml

71
Q

describe the process of inspiration

A

-The diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
-The volume of the thoracic cavity increases
-As the dome-shaped diaphragm contract inferiorly, the Superior- inferior Dimension of the thoracic cavity increases
-Contraction of the external intercostals lifts the rib cage and thrusts the sternum forward, which increases the anteroposterior and lateral dimensions of the thorax
-As the intrapulmonary volume (the volume within the lungs) increases, the gases within the lung spread out to fill the larger space resulting in decrease in gas pressure in the lungs.
-It produces a partial vacuum (pressure in the lungs is less than atmospheric pressure outside the body) which causes air to flow into the lungs down the pressure gradient.
-Air continues to move into the lungs until the intrapulmonary pressure equals the atmospheric pressure

72
Q

describe the process of expiration

A

-it is a passive process
-as the inspiratory muscles relax and resume their initial resting length, the ribcage descends, the diaphragm relaxes superiorly, and the lungs recoil.
-both thoracic and intrapulmonary volumes decrease
-as the intrapulmonary volume decreases, the gases inside the lungs are forced closely together and the intrapulmonary pressure rises to a point higher than atmospheric pressure.
-this causes the gases to passively flow out to equalize the pressure with the outside.

73
Q

what is the parietal pleura

A

pleural layer covering the thorax walls

74
Q

what is the visceral pleura

A

pleural layer covering the lungs

75
Q

fleshy lobes in the nasal cavity which increase its surface area

A

conchae

76
Q

what type of tissue is the alveolar walls made up of

A

squamous epithelial tissue

77
Q

what is the function of the surfactant

A

reduces surface tension of the alveolar fluid

anatomy and physiology (9 decks)

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