English society in the reign of Henry VIII Flashcards
(17 cards)
What was the nobility like during Henry VIII’s reign?
Size of peerage increased during the reign of Henry VIII: by the end of his reign there were only 9 more peers than there had been at its beginning
Creation of new peers had been to a large extent offset both by “natural wastage” and by the number of attainders during the reign
Most new peers achieved their rank as a result of success royal service as courtiers/soldiers; in some cases this was enhanced by a close family relationship, eg. Henry VIII’s brother-in-law Edward Seymour was elevated to Earl of Hertford
Only duke when Henry VIII came to the throne: Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, he never enjoyed royal favour
Henry VIII only promoted 2 non-royal ducal titles, Norfolk and Suffolk; their holders served as soldiers and courtiers. Norfolk was restored his father’s title, whereas Suffolk was promoted through his close personal relationship with the king — this prompted criticism in some quarters, eg. by Erasmus
Henry VIII sometimes bestowed property on nobles to enable them to exert royal authority in particular areas; eg. Suffolk was endowed with property in Lincolnshire after the 1536 and was ordered to move there to ensure he could exert that authority in person
Nobles were expected to have great households and offer hospitality to their affinity and neighbours, however doing so too openly could make a noble an object of royal suspicion, eg. with Buckingham
Noble households still remained critical to the maintenance of local influence and to the recruitment of royal armies, eg. The Earl of Shresbury raised over 4,000 men for the invasion of France in 1513
Bastard feudalism had not died away completely, but it was being brought more under the control of the monarch
How was the nobility impacted by Henry VIII’s greater exertion of control over it?
1521 — Duke of Buckingham was executed for treason on very vague charges
1537 — Lords Darcy and Hussey were executed for their roles in the 1536 rebellion, Henry VIII’s actions here were perfectly justifiable according to the period’s legal standards
1538 — Henry VIII’s relatives Henry Pole, Baron Montague and Henry Courtenay, Marquess of Exeter, were accused of treasonable conspiracy and executed
1541 — Montague’s mother, Margaret Pole Countess of Salisbury, was executed after having been attainted of treason and held in the Tower for over two years; this was arguably the most vindictive of all of Henry VIII’s punitive actions
1541 — Thomas Fiennes, Baron Dacre of the South was tried for the murder of a neighbour’s servant but he was convicted and hanged like a common criminal
What was the gentry like during Henry VIII’s reign?
John Guy has suggested that there were about 5,000 gentry families in England in 1540; Susan Brigden has suggested that around 200 of these were knightly families
Some aspects of gentry status were specific:
1) Knighthoods were conferred as a sign of royal favour and it was assumed that a knight would possess an income which reflected his status
2) A gentleman who was entitled to bear a coat of arms was an esquire; this status was certified by the royal heralds
By 1530, heralds were unwilling to grant or confirm the title to anyone with lands worth less than £10 per annum or goods worth under £300
The term “gentleman” lacked legal precision, “gentility” was often acquired as a result of the proceeds of office, profession or business
Number of gentry increased during Henry VIII’s reign
Increase in number of JPs increased the numbers of those who participated in local administration; many members of the gentry were increasingly drawn into unpaid administration on behalf of the Crown
Gentry members were becoming more and more keen for their sons to acquire the legal training which would make them better able to take on roles which could offer the basis for local advancement
Crown’s local administrators had formerly been clergymen, increasingly they were laymen; their office holding often generated the income which would bring about landownership and gentry status
What were the commoners like during Henry VIII’s reign?
Little dramatic change in the standard of living for commoners during the first half of Henry VIII’s reign
The rise in the rate of inflation led to a decrease in real incomes; this contributed to the ill feeling felt by many towards the imposition of the Amicable Grant
Social structure remained substantially unchanged: the vast majority of people had very few possessions and little chance of a regular and secure employment
Governments were always fearful of such peasants because outbreaks of disorder were quite common, although full-scale rebellion was relatively rare
How did Henry VIII incorporate Wales in his goal to achieve a unitary state?
Before 1536, Wales was a separate territory from England, though in practice it was under English control, even though the ruling dynasty was of Welsh origin
Wales comprised marcher lordships and the Principality of Wales; it did not have a single unified administration or a formal political link with England
1536 — the Laws in Wales Act was passed. It:
1) Divided Wales into shire counties, operating on the same basis as their English counterparts
2) Gave the Welsh shires direct representation in the House of Commons
3) Brought Wales into the same legal framework as England
In practice Wales became incorporated into England with very little separate identity, except for the survival of the Welsh language in some parts of the country
Control over Wales continued to be exercised on the Crown’s behalf; increasingly this became the responsibility of members of the aristocracy (eg. the Earl of Pembroke) and by members of an anglicised Welsh gentry who controlled country politics
How did Henry VIII incorporate the English palatinates in his goal to achieve a unitary state?
Counties of Lancashire, Cheshire and Durham were technically palatinates, meaning that they were separate jurisdictions from the rest of the kingdom
In Lancashire and Cheshire the exercise of palatinate jurisdiction had long since fallen back into royal power
Durham was still technically separate and palatinate jurisdiction was exercised by the bishop
1536 — the Act Resuming Liberties to the Crown reduced the level of independence enjoyed by the bishop; however it didn’t remove it completely, eg. the palatinate court of chancery continued to operate
How did Henry VIII deal with Anglo-Welsh border administration?
Lands that were governed as part of the Principality of Wales, as well as the four bordering English counties — Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire, Gloucestershire — came under the jurisdiction of the Council of Wales and the Marches
This council was based at Ludlow, Shropshire; this offered relatively cheap and local access to the law, therefore it could be seen as a benefit to the area under its jurisdiction
How did Henry VIII deal with Anglo-Scottish border administration?
Remained a problematic area for Henry VIII as the border was difficult to police: much of it was remote and often inhospitable during the winter months
Both sides of the border had a reputation for lawlessness; cattle and sheep rustling were rife, violence was common
The border with Scotland was split into three marches, each under the jurisdiction of a warden.
Filling the warden posts was difficult:
1) Appointing from a local noble family ran the risk that the noble would exploit his office to enhance his own power at the king’s expense
2) Appointing local officers who came from the gentry class or those who were complete outsiders meant that they were more likely to owe complete loyalty to the king. However they had limited ability to influence the conduct of local people, who often saw themselves as owing a primary loyalty to a local magnate
1542 — Henry VIII appointed Thomas Lord Wharton, who had only recently been raised to the peerage. He was a man of relatively humble origins and came from the gentry class
What was the Council in the North and what was its role?
N England posed problems of governance as the regime was based far away in London; Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536 strongly demonstrated this
Henry VIII and Cromwell re-established the Council as a permanent body based in York with a professional staff: it had both administrative and legal functions, and proved its worth by helping keep the north quiet during the 1549 summer of rebellions
What was the social impact of religious upheaval?
Little sign that there would be fundamental changes to the English Church at the start of Henry VIII’s reign
Church appears to have fulfilled the requirements of the bulk of the people to whom it ministered; some complaints were made occasionally, eg. about the worldliness of the clergy
There had been some improvement in the early 16th century in the quality of the clergy; Cardinal Wolsey had dissolved some redundant monasteries and used their endowments for educational purposes
In the 1530s Henry VIII broke with Rome and became head of a new English church; a small minority of people welcomed the religious change this brought but there was no groundswell of popular support
Some who denied the royal supremacy were executed, most notably Sir Thomas More
Monasteries had been an important feature of the appeal of the pre-Reformation Church. Cromwell’s dissolution of monasteries and 1536 royal injunctions attacked many of traditional Catholic practices (eg. holy days, pilgrimages, veneration of relics); this sparked fears that these reforms might lead to an attack on parish churches, leading to the Pilgrimage of Grace
Dissolution of monasteries was seen as a potential disaster and some communities went to considerable lengths to try protect their monasteries. eg. Royal commissioners at Hexham, Northumberland were prevented by a gathering of armed men from beginning the process of dissolution
What were the long-lasting social consquences of religious upheaval?
Huge amount of land was removed from the Church and taken by the Crown; theoretically should have made the king more powerful, but Henry VIII’s warlike foreign policy led to the widespread sale of Church and monastic property, often at knock-down prices, thereby increasing the size and wealth of landholding gentry. By 1547 almost ⅔ of monastic land acquired by the Crown had been sold or granted away
Many monasteries had been noted for their educational provision, many monastic schools were lost
Many monks and nuns were suddenly rendered unemployed; some monks were able to secure employment as secular priests and many others received pensions, but the position of nuns was very precarious
Some monasteries had played a very considerable role in their communities, providing education, offering employment and business opportunities
Some major monastic churches (eg. Durham) were the cathedrals of their dioceses; many others doubled up as the local parish church
How did the public resist to taxation through the Amicable Grant?
Imposition of taxes to pay for foreign demands brought instability and order
1513 — complaints in Yorkshire, particularly upland areas, about the subsidy to raise money for Henry VIII’s campaigns in 1513. Taxation demands for some affected areas were eventually written off
The 1525 Amicable Grant was a non-parliamentary tax proposed by Wolsey to fund Henry VIII’s war with France, intended as a “friendly” request for funds
Many refused to pay the Amicable Grant: opposition was widespread, but the strongest resistance occurred in N Essex and S Suffolk
Earl of Essex reported that 1,000 people had gathered at the Essex-Suffolk border, determined to resist payment. Dukes of Norfolk and Suffolk faced about 4,000 taxation resisters, especially unemployed cloth workers for whom it was impossible to pay the levy; they handled the matter sensitively and the king backed down
Wolsey publicly begged the king to offer pardon to those whom he saw as his Suffolk countrymen so the leaders of the resistance were treated leniently
The incident demonstrated that Henry VIII couldn’t operate in defiance of the taxpaying classes; when he next invaded France he supplemented his extraordinary revenue from the sale of monastic lands
What was the background context to the Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Lincolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace comprised the largest single rebellion in the history of Tudor England
Resentment of a government which was pushing too quickly fundamental religious changes that most ordinary people couldn’t sympathise with or understand
Began as a rising in early October 1536 in Lincolnshire, spreading to the Humber and E Riding of Yorkshire, continuing from there into parts of the W Riding around Wakefield and Pontefract
A second more militant rising started in the dales between Ripon and Richmond, spreading west into Cumberland, Westmorland and N Lancashire; then north into Durham and southwest into Craven area of W Riding of Yorkshire
Rebels in the second rising were more radicalised and more hostile towards the gentry because of the strength of their grievances against their landlords
Class antagonism in the second rising was clear from letters sent out in the name of “Captain Poverty”; the recreation of the “Captain Poverty” movement helps explain the revival of rebellion in Cumberland in early 1537
What religious motives influenced the rebels in the Licolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace?
Dissolution of the monasteries:
By early autumn 1536 the work of dissolving the smaller monasteries was well under way, and it was evident that this would have a number of undesirable effects
Charitable and educational functions which some monasteries provided would be lost, as well as the general usefulness of the facilities and services which they offered
Parish churches would possibly be lost as they were monastic properties
There was a fear that the north would be impoverished by monastic land falling into the hands of southerners
The importance of monasteries to the rebels is evident in their attempts to restore some of the suppressed religious houses. Leader Robert Aske was also a convinced supporter of the monasteries
Fear for parish churches and traditional religious practices:
The 1536 Injunctions, drawn up by Cromwell, were seen as attacking traditional religious practices:
Celebration of locally important saints (eg. St Wilfrid in parts of Yorkshire) had been discouraged
Pilgrimage was also discouraged
There were rumours that church plate and jewels, which had been bequeathed by parishioners, would be confiscated, as well as that parishes might be amalgamated
What secular motives influenced the rebels in the Licolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace?
The ordinary rebels were generally more motivated by economic grievances, including resentment of taxation
Rebellion in Lincolnshire may have initially been sparked by the Crown’s attempts to impose the Duke of Suffolk as a great magnate
Historian Geoffrey Elton argues that the rebellions were brought about primarily by a court conspiracy prompted by councillors who had supported Catherine of Aragon. Their motive was the restoration of Princess Mary as heir, so they exploited the religious and financial concerns of the northerners in order to put pressure on the king, as part of the factional politics of the reign
Extension of the rebellion into Cumberland and Westmorland has been linked in particular to tenants’ grievances
How were the Licolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace suppressed?
Estimates of the numbers involved vary, but it is evident that these were the most geographically widespread and most popular (in terms of participation) rebellions in Tudor England
Lincolnshire Rebellion collapsed quickly when faced with the forces of the Duke of Suffolk, but the northern rebels occupied York and Hull, capturing Pontefract Castle, causing great alarm to both the king and many of his ministers
The rebels released the Pontefract Articles, which gave the most comprehensive set of their demands and incorporated a range of their grievances: some were widespread while others were specific to particular areas, some were highly contentious and others were minor. The Articles direct anger against Cromwell and members of his circle
Henry VIII sent north an army under the command of the Duke of Norfolk, who was hugely outnumbered when he encountered the rebels near Doncaster
Norfolk sought to defuse the rebellion so he issued a pardon and promised that the dissolved monasteries would be restored, and a free parliament established, as well as the guarantee that parliament would meet at York within the next year
Henry VIII had no intention of honouring the promises but they secured their strategic objectives and the majority of the rebel forces dispersed
February 1537 — when rebellion was renewed in Cumberland and the E Riding, Henry VIII had the excuse he needed to go back on his word
The Duke of Norfolk quickly suppressed the renewed rebellion, declared martial law, hanged 74 rebels. After that initial harshness he behaved relatively mercifully and with a concern for proper legal process
A number of rebel leaders (including Lords Darcy and Hussey), several members of the gentry, several heads of monastic houses were brought to London, where they were tried and executed
Pilgrimage of Grace shook Henry VIII: his own dealing of it had been poor, as he had ignored the warnings about the increase in resentment as he didn’t wish to hear them
Henry VIII was fortunate that the Duke of Norfolk showed common sense and flexibility, allowing the rebellions to be suppressed
Which peerage members were involved in the Licolnshire Rising and the Pilgrimage of Grace, and how did Henry VIII punish them?
Lords Darcy and Hussey were executed for the roles they played in 1537:
Darcy was the Constable of Pontefract Castle; he had sympathised with the rebels and refused to surrender Aske to the king
Hussey was accused of conspiring to change laws, despose the king and of abetting the rebels. His Catholic sympathies and service to Princess Mary may have been held against him
