Henry VIII, government and Parliament Flashcards
(22 cards)
What was the background context to Henry VIII’s use of government and Parliament?
Major overhaul of relations between Crown and Parliament took place during Henry VIII’s reign
Before the 1530s, Parliament’s main functions remained to pass laws and grant extraordinary revenue to the Crown
In his earlier years, Henry VIII didn’t see the need to seek Parliament’s advice
Wolsey seems to have regarded Parliament with some distaste and thus only one was called (1523) during his period of dominance
In the first part of the revenue it is evident that Henry VIII followed his father’s use of Parliament, primarily to secure revenue
Wolsey was reluctant to use Parliament, but Cromwell exploited its legislative possibilities much more thoroughly; thus it met more frequently in the second half of Henry VIII’s reign
Governance via councils broke down during Henry VIII’s reign due to conflict between the king’s own impulsive personality and that of his more conservative councillors. Wolsey provided the effective management of government which was required
Government can be divided into three parts: legislative (law-making), executive (ensuring laws and actions are carried out) and judiciary (judging the laws)
What were the different Parliament sessions during the reign of Henry VIII?
Jan → Feb 1510:
Abolished the Council Learned in Law
Feb 1512 → Mar 1514:
Provided extraordinary revenue for invasions of France and Scotland
Anticlerical Act restricted benefit of clergy
Feb → Dec 1515:
Act restricting benefit of clergy was not renewed, despite the House of Commons’ apparently anticlerical atmosphere
Apr → Aug 1523:
Provided extraordinary revenue for invasion of France
Sir Thomas More (speaker of the HoC) made the first known plea for the freedom of speech of MPs
Level of anticlericalism seemed to be much reduced
Nov 1529 → Apr 1536:
Reformation Parliament
Jun → Jul 1536:
Called to enact a new Succession Act following the fall of Anne Boleyn
Apr 1539 → Jul 1540:
Called to provide extraordinary revenue under the threat of invasion
Produced divergent religious legislation
Jan 1542 → Mar 1544:
Provided extraordinary revenue for invasions of France and Scotland
Dealt once more with the issue of succession
Nov 1545 → Jan 1547:
Provided extraordinary revenue
Who was Thomas Wolsey, c1471-1530?
Upon Henry VIII’s accession, he became the royal almoner — distributor of money as charity to the needy on behalf of the king
Came to Henry VIII’s attention as a result of his organisational abilities, intelligence and articulacy
An apparently minor member of the Council who became more like chief minister, interposing himself between the king and other councillors; they were increasingly frozen out from serious influence
George Cavendish, Wolsey’s servant and biographer — “the most earnest and readiest among all the Council to advance the king’s only will and pleasure”
1514 — appointed Bishop of Lincoln, followed by Archbishop of York
1515 — appointed Lord Chancellor by Henry VIII, and Cardinal by Pope Leo X
1518 — appointed papal legate, making him the Pope’s representative in England
Why did conciliar government end and how did Wolsey contribute to this?
Conciliar approach to government lasted from 1509-14. Several factors brought it to an end:
1) Reluctance of some senior councillors to support a war with France
2) Henry VIII increasingly asserted his undoubted right to control decision-making as he became more attuned to governing
3) The like-minded young courtiers which surrounded Henry VIII reinforced his suspicions of the “old guard”
4) Henry VIII became impressed with Wolsey’s organisational skills: his contribution to the effective management of the French campaign earned him royal gratitude
Wolsey eventually emerged as the dominant political figure, having the ability to give the king precisely what he wanted, or else convince him of what he assumed he wanted
Wolsey’s influence derived from his close relationship to Henry VIII rather than from the formal positions he held
Wolsey’s main concerns were the legal system, the formulation of domestic policy and political decision-making — in addition to the management of the Church and the conduct of foreign relations
What was the Privy Chamber and how did Wolsey attempt to control it?
Before 1519, this area of government lay outside Wolsey’s immediate control
Established during Henry VII’s reign; its role was extended in early years of Henry VIII’s reign when his “minions” became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber. This transformed their status and that of the Privy Chamber
The minions collectively distrusted Wolsey, and he tried to neutralise their influence; in 1519 he secured their removal and replaced them with his own supporters, but the majority managed to recover their positions
Privy Chamber thus retained some of its prestige and influence; it was the one part of government that Wolsey did not have direct control over
How did Wolsey use the court of Chancery?
Before 1519, this area of government lay outside Wolsey’s immediate control
Established during Henry VII’s reign; its role was extended in early years of Henry VIII’s reign when his “minions” became Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber. This transformed their status and that of the Privy Chamber
The minions collectively distrusted Wolsey, and he tried to neutralise their influence; in 1519 he secured their removal and replaced them with his own supporters, but the majority managed to recover their positions
Privy Chamber thus retained some of its prestige and influence; it was the one part of government that Wolsey did not have direct control over
How did Wolsey develop and use the Court of Star Chamber?
1487 — the Court of Star Chamber was established by an Act of Parliament as an offshoot of the king’s Council
Wolsey’s most distinctive legal contribution came through the operation of this court; it became the centre of both government and justice under his influence
Wolsey extended the use of the Star Chamber from 1516 in order to increase cheap and fair justice; he heard cases of alleged misconduct by people who were dominant in their localities
Wolsey encouraged the use of the Star Chamber for private lawsuits, but he proved too successful in this regard: he was forced to set up a series of “overflow tribunals” to deal with the pressure of business
1519 — Wolsey set up a permanent committee which became the ancestor of the later court of requests, whose job was to deal with cases involving the poor
How did Wolsey raise finance through the “Tudor subsidy”?
As under Henry VII, it was expected that taxpayers would provide extraordinary revenue when required; this was most effectively achieved by raising subsidies — a grant issued by Parliament to the sovereign for State needs
Wolsey made a substantial change in the way subsidies were collected by setting up a national committee which he was the head of, instead of using local commissioners to assess taxpayers’ wealth (this had the risk that they would be overly generous to local nobles)
Nation’s revenue base consequently became more realistic as a result of direct and realistic assessments of taxpayers’ wealth
In this way Wolsey raised extraordinary revenue for Henry VIII’s war with France, but the amount proved to be insufficient so he attempted to raise unparliamentary taxation through the 1525 Amicable Grant; it led to widespread resistance, amounting almost to rebellion
Similarly in the 1523 Parliament, Wolsey proved insensitive and the parliament seems to have spent much of its time grumbling against his financial demands — he ultimately was unable to secure all the funds he wanted. This contrasted the broadly supportive parliaments of Henry VII’s reign
How did Wolsey raise finances through the Eltham Ordinances?
1526 — Wolsey introduced the Eltham Ordinances in order to reform the finances of the Privy Council
Under the guise of pushing forward proposals for a reduction in royal household expenditure, Wolsey secured a reduction in the number of the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
Henry VIII’s Groom of the Stool (Sir William Compton) was replaced with the more compliant Henry Norris
Historian Peter Gwyn argued that the purpose of the EO was primarily financial, as many more humble household servants also lost the posts, not just the Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
Historian David Starkey argued that the issuing of the EO reflected Wolsey’s fear that the Amicable Grant might make him so unpopular as to be in danger of losing his political influence over Henry VIII
What was the “King’s Great Matter?”
By the mid-1520s, Henry VIII was becoming dissatisfied with the state of his marriage; Catherine of Aragon was past childbearing age and he only had one child who had survived infancy — Princess Mary
Henry VIII was even considering legitimating Henry Fitzroy, his son from his mistress Bessie Blount
Henry VIII had also fallen madly in love with Anne Boleyn, the niece of Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk; she was unwilling to become the king’s mistress
To marry Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII required Wolsey to secure a papal dispensation for the annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon
Henry VIII used the book of Leviticus as the biblical justification to form the basis of an annulment, as it contained a prohibition on a man marrying his brother’s widow
Henry VIII argued that the papal dispensation issued by Pope Julius II which permitted his own marriage to Catherine of Aragon was invalid and therefore it was illegal in God’s eyes, leaving him free to marry Anne
However Catherine of Aragon claimed that her marriage to Prince Arthur had never been consummated and therefore the biblical ban did not apply
In normal circumstances the Pope may have been prepared to issue a dispensation for annulment. However in May 1527, Rome had been sacked by the troops of Charles V and Pope Clement VII was in effect prisoner to the emperor, who didn’t want to see his family insulted
May 1527 — Wolsey used his power as personal representative to the Pope to bring Henry VIII before a fake court to accuse him of living in sin with his supposed wife; Henry readily admitted to this. Catherine of Aragon refused to accept the court’s verdict and appealed to the Pope in accordance with canon law
Why did Wolsey fall from power?
Wolsey’s fate depended on his ability to secure an annulment; the Pope was aware of his situation but could only play for time, increasing Henry VIII’s frustration
Two years of fruitless diplomacy passed (1527-29), after which the Pope sent envoy Cardinal Campeggio to hear out the case along with Wolsey; this hearing opened on 15 June 1529 and was adjourned on 30 July, the annulment not having been achieved
Wolsey’s fall was sudden but not unexpected: he was growing increasingly unpopular after forcing the 1523 subsidy through Parliament and attempting to impose the Amicable Grant; former associates had begun to distance themselves from him
October 1529 — Wolsey was charged with praemunire — a parliamentary statue to prevent papal interference in the rights of the Crown to make appointments to Church office
Wolsey was arrested on 4 November 1530 and it was intended for him to be tried and executed, but he died earlier than this happened, on 29 November
How did Cromwell come to power and to what extent did he dominate government?
Conciliar government continued for nearly 3 years following the fall of Wolsey; this phase was brought to an end with the emergence of Thomas Cromwell
Thomas Cromwell (c1485-1540) rose from a humble background to become a lawyer and secretary to Wolsey, then principal secretary to Henry VIII
Cromwell proposed that Henry VIII make a break with Rome and become head of the Church of England, which would allow him to secure his marriage annulment
By 1532 he was the king’s chief minister and in 1534 he was appointed Lord Chancellor
Cromwell never received the range of influence and independence enjoyed by Wolsey, but for the rest of the 1530s he came to dominate royal government
Parliament’s role in government developed in the years 1529-36, when the “Reformation Parliament” was in session
How did Cromwell achieve the divorce between Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon?
The divorce and the break with Rome were achieved through the use of statute law, whose supremacy over canon law was firmly established
How did Cromwell and Henry VIII exploit weaknesses in the Church?
Catholic Church as an institution had been weakened by humanist criticisms and anticlerical satire
1528 — the Church’s claims to legal supremacy were challenged by the lawyer Christopher St German, who asserted the superiority of English law over canon law
The Collectanea Satis Copiosa justified the king’s divorce on the basis of legal and historical principles. This collection of historical documents asserted that kings of England had always held both a secular and a spiritual authority over the Church
To increase pressure on the papacy, Henry VIII sought and received expert opinions on his marital situation from a number of continental universities; some were favourable to his position
How did Cromwell and Henry VIII pressurise the Pope?
1531:
Clergy collectively accused of praemunire and fined
Began a sustained attack on the clergy and forced it to acknowledge that the king was “Protector and Supreme head of the English Church”
1532:
Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates
(Annates: revenue paid to the Pope by a bishop or other cleric on his appointment; effectively church taxes collected in England and sent to Rome)
Designed to increase pressure on the papacy, by withholding conditionally the first year’s income from the office of bishop which the papacy had traditionally enjoyed
1532:
House of Commons Supplication against the Ordinaries, a petition addressed to the king by the House of Commons, directed against alleged abuses of ordinary jurisdiction
Used to increase anticlerical pressure within the House of Commons
1532:
Formal submission of the clergy to Henry VIII; the formal surrender of the Church’s independent law-making function
Provoked the resignation of Sir Thomas More as Lord Chancellor
How did Henry VIII marry Anne Boleyn?
Anne Boleyn finally consented to have sexual relations with Henry VIII outside of marriage, gambling that she would become pregnant which would force him to take decisive action
Henry VIII’s path was eased by Archbishop of Canterbury William Warham’s death; he was replaced by Thomas Cranmer who still received his authority from Rome but would become a leader of the Reformation
By December 1532 it was known that Anne was pregnant, and the couple married in a secret ceremony in January 1533 — the marriage was invalid according to the Catholic Church
May 1533 — Cranmer annulled Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon’s former marriage; Anne was crowned shortly afterwards
Anne’s child (Princess Elizabeth) was born on 7 September 1533, and was legitimate under English law
What major Acts did Parliament pass in the years 1533-1534?
The Act in Restraint of Appeals was drafted by Cromwell in April 1533, founded on the evidence in Collectanea Satis Copiosa. The preamble to the Act declared that the monarch possessed an imperial jurisdiction not subject to any foreign power, and the Act itself declared that appeals regarding Church court decisions “in causes matrimonial” and other areas could not be made to Rome. ie. Catherine of Aragon could not appeal to Rome about her marriage annulment
The Act of Succession (April 1534) declared that:
Henry VIII’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon was void
1) The succession should be vested in the children of his marriage to Anne Boleyn
2) It was treason to deny the validity of Henry VIII’s marriage to Anne Boleyn
3) An oath should be taken to affirm an individual’s acceptance of the new marriage
The Act of Supremacy (November 1534) confirmed and gave legislative force to the royal supremacy, effectively accomplishing the break with Rome
The Treason Act (November 1534) was tightened so that treason could be committed by the spoken word as well as by deed or writing. It also made it treasonable to describe the king as “heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper of the Crown”
The Act Annexing First Fruits and Tenths to the Crown (November 1534) made annates acceptable when paid to the king and not the Pope. this increased the financial burden on the clergy and strengthened the royal supremacy
What brought about Anne Boleyn’s downfall?
At first she was a considerable advocate of Church reform and helped push the king in a more Protestant direction
Relations between Anne Boleyn and Cromwell broke down; he felt that his relationship with the king, and even potentially his life, was threatened
Cromwell allied with the conservatives and together they persuaded Henry VIII that his wife’s flirtatious manner had led to adultery
Anne Boleyn’s downfall was very sudden: she was accused of adultery, conspiracy and incest, and was executed on 19 May 1536
Catherine of Aragon also died in January 1536, which made Henry VIII a widower and free to remarry in the eyes of Catholics
Why did Thomas Cromwell fall from power?
By 1540, Cromwell’s influence was declining; the catalyst for his downfall was his failure to satisfactorily arrange the king’s marital affairs
1537 — Jane Seymour had died after giving birth to Prince Edward
In 1540 Cromwell tried to reconcile Henry VIII with the League of Schmalkalden — an organisation of German princes and free cities in the HRE who supported Martin Luther — by arranging a marriage with German Protestant princess Anne of Cleves
Anne of Cleves was unsuitable to Henry VIII personally and the match became politically unwelcome; the marriage was annulled, destroying Cromwell’s credibility with the king
Cromwell’s enemies, led by the Duke of Norfolk, brought about his downfall: he was accused of treason and heresy at a Council meeting and was executed on 28 July 1540
The same day as Cromwell’s execution, Henry VIII married the Catholic Catherine Howard, conveniently the Duke of Norfolk’s niece
Protestant Reformation seemed to be in tatters; this was reinforced by the burning of heresy of three Protestant theologians on 30 July 1540. However Henry VIII also ensured the execution of three Catholic priests the same day — they had been imprisoned for 6 years, for treason in denying the royal supremacy
How did government change in Henry VIII’s last years?
Conservative revival of 1539-1540 meant that a form of conciliar government was restored
Emergence of a Privy Council with a fixed membership, supported by a secretary who kept a formal record of proceedings
Debate as to the extent of the king’s power in his final years: seen as being firmly in control on the one hand, but on the other he is viewed as essentially weak and prey to the factions in the court
In 1540, power temporarily lay with conservatives in the Council, eg. Norfolk, Stephen Gardiner, Thomas Wriothesely
However problems created by Henry VIII’s marital issues once again shifted the balance of power
What were Henry VIII’s marriages to Catherine of Howard and Katherine Parr like?
Norfolk was eager to once more benefit politically from a marriage between his family and the king
His niece Catherine Howard was already sexually experienced, and there were allegations of an affair between her and her distant cousin Thomas Culpepper
Catherine Howard and her lady of the bedchamber were executed for treason on 13 February 1542. Several of her relatives were also implicated and disgraced
Norfolk managed to extricate himself from the affair, but was politically wounded; his problems were reinforced when Henry VIII married the Protestant Katherine Parr
Norfolk was aware of the danger that Katherine Parr posed to his ambitions and unsuccessfully tried to embroil her in accusations of heresy
What political rivalries emerged in Henry VIII’s final years?
Political rivalries intensified as the king’s health began to deteriorate; whoever was most influential in Henry VIII’s last months was likely to be in a position to dominate under his successor
Edward Seymour advanced during this period
Duke of Norfolk’s son (Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey) threatened the king’s throne and was executed for treason; Henry VIII consented to Norfolk’s execution as well, but the new Council did not want to inaugurate the reign with bloodshed, so instead he remained prisoner in the Tower for the duration of Edward VI’s reign
Henry VIII died on 28 January 1547
