EQ3

Question 1

8.7 a

the united nations is a global organisation

Answer 1

• formed 1945 to make peace n fair world
• 193 members
• the uns aims:
  1. maintain global peace n security
  2. develop friendly relations between nations
  3. use cooperation to solve international problems
  4. bring countries together to settle disputes
• tries to deal w global issues so sets up of agencies n organisations: enviromental- UN framework convention on CC 1992
  socioeconomic-some to reduce poverty n inequality or support vulnerable groups
  political-UN security council=maintain global peace n security while general assembly acts as ‘parliment of nations’ n makes decisions on range of issues

Question 2

members of un security council have diff ideas about geopolitics

Answer 2

• unsc has 15 members-some r permamnet, some change every 2 years=ensure every country=represented at some point
• members have diff political systems,allies n foreign policies eg china=authoritaruian state n france=democracy.
• =lead to disagreementsover decisions eg whether to launch an intevrention to protect human rights
• they vote on how UN should respond to situations that threaten global peace n security eg wars.

Question 3

8.7B

IGO meaning

Answer 3

• an organisation composed primarly of sovereign states (referred to as member states) or of other intergovermental organisations

Question 4

UN has intervened directly n indirectly to protect human rights

Answer 4

• it tries to maintain peace n security n protect human rights by intervening in situations where these=threatened
• they might apply economic sanctions or launch a direct military intervention:
  -Un n its member countries put political n economic pressure on countries involved in crisis
  -can range from writing letters to leaders applying economic sanctions eg trade embargos that restrict trade w/a country
  -in v serious crises, the UNSC choose to launch a military intervention, sending the uns peacekeeping forces

Question 5

economic sanction:
trade embargo imposed on iran

Answer 5

• 1979 lifted in 1981
• most sanctioned country in world till russia n ukraine
• reasons for it: students seized control of US embassy in tehran n took hostages. uranium enrichment programme-nuclear weapons
• sanction incl: freeze $8.1bn assests, ban on iranian oil imports, 1980 sanction on usa trade w iran so no travel n no vessels leave iran
• it deterredcountries doing same nuclear routes as them
• lost $60bn investment annually
• but theyre still threat to USA
• n failed to prevent irans proxy wars in syria, iraq n afghan or terrorist attacks on tankers in 2019

Question 6

UN intervention in democratic republic of congo

Answer 6

• 1998-conflict between rival ethnic n political groups in DRC
• each side was supported by neighbouring countries eg rwanda n angola
• over 5 mill died between 1998 n 2008
• un security council called for ceasefire n warned countries not to get involved
• but this was ignored eg simbabwe sent over 10,000 troops into DRC n over 300 prisoners of war
• the UNSC set up a peacekeeping mission to help diff groups to reach agreement n hold democratic elections-involve deploying over 19,000 troops
• mission resolved conflict n elections held for 1st time in over 40 yrs
• but violence n serious human right abuses continued in E DRC
• 2013- UNSC approved creation of ‘intervention brigade’ to tackle armed groups
• aim=strengthen peacekeeping mission n stabilise conflict in region
• progress=slow-end of 2022 there was still around 12,800 un soilders in drc n conflicts continued

Question 7

direct military intervention:
involvement in bosnia

Answer 7

• 1995 attack on bosnian muslims=8,000 deaths n known as ‘srebrenica massacre’= led to NATO operation deliberate force
• this was a sustained air campaign conducted by NATO in concert w/UNPF to undermine military capability of army of republika srpska
• NATO intervention was to help prevent the bosnian war spilling into eu countries
• it was asked to intervene after allegations of war crimes against civilians was made
• it designed a safe zone
• happened between 30 aug n 20 sept 1995-involved 500 aircraft n 5,000 personnel from 15 nations
• not succesful in protecting muslims
• safe zones= seiged=killed 8000 men n depot 23,000 women n kids=many suffered rape
• ## food supplies ran low n many muslims died of staration

Question 8

8.7c

russia vs ukraine

Answer 8

-

Question 9

8.8a

3 igos play big role in global trade- the imf, wb n wto

Answer 9

• after ww2 the winning allied nations set up new economic situatiosn to promote international trade n help to maintain dominance of capitalism
• igos that grow out of these still play an important role in global economic system
• theyre all best in west n based on west ideas about what a capitalist economic system should look like
• the main ideas r: free trade, privatisation n deregulation, democracy
• they use their influence to manage the global economy eg overseeing agreements betwee countries n lending money to countries to prevent economic crisis
• also use influence to promote their western capitalist model
• eg establishing policies about trade n financial markets as well as offering countries loans that=conditional on adopting free trade policies

Question 10

IMF

Answer 10

• international monetary fund monitors the global economy n advises govs on how they could improve their economic situation
• it also gives loans to countries w/economic issues

Question 11

wto

Answer 11

• world trade organisation was set up to ^ trade n help resolve trade disputes between member countries
• it sets rules about how countries should trade w/each other

Question 12

world bank

Answer 12

• provides loans to developing countries to invest in areas like health, education n infrastructure

Question 13

8.8b

igo policies on trade n borrowing have helped developed countries

Answer 13

• igos=help ^ economic growth in dev countries
• policies that encourage international trade n reduce economic barriers have helped these to export their goods n services n to import cheaper goods from developing ones=boost economic growth of dev c
• estimated usas membership of wto ^ its gdp by around $87 bn a year
• they set borrowing rules eg IMF only lends money to mitigate/prevent economic crises
• benefit dev countries eg 1976-uk gov=approve loan of $3.9bn from imf to help it avoid a financial crisis
• interest rates fell n overall economic situation improved as result of loan
• DC=more influence on running igos=more power to make rules work in their favour

Question 14

structural adjustment programmes

Answer 14

• the imf or world bank agrees to provide loan to country, on condition it makes big changes to its economic policy
• this can incl reducing gov spending, privatising state-owned industries n reducing regulations n other barriers to international investment

Question 15

heavily indebted poor countries initiative

Answer 15

• the imf n wb offer debt relief (reducing amount of money that countries have to pay them back) to developing countries that meet strict criteria
• these criterea incl adopting economic reforms n take steps towards reducing poverty
• idetified 39 eligible countries but by 2016 only 36 of these had recieved full/partial debt relief

Question 16

jamaicas sap

Answer 16

• developing country in caribbean
• 1970s+80s it struggled w/economic recessions n debt
• led to jamaica accepting loans from imf n wb w/SA conditions
• main condition: adopting austerity measures-reduce gov spending on public services=big impact eg no of nurses fell by 60%
• 1991-agrred to more saps for more loans-focus on deregulating jamaicas economy w/policies like keep wages low to encourage fdi
• social n economic wellbeing=declined eg 1990 97% of kids completed primary skl compare to 85% in 2019
• doesnt qualify for HIPC bc its gdp means its considered an upper middle income country n so ‘too rich’ for this financial assistance
• its debt in march 2015= $1.85 trillion

Question 17

hipci conditions

Answer 17

• each country had to show good financial management n lack of corruption
• national gov had to spend the savings gained via cancelled debt repayements on poverty reduction, education n healthcare programmes

Question 18

8.8c

regional trade groups

Answer 18

• most countries=part of imf,wb n wto bc they r so influential that countries find it difficult to take part in global economy w/out becoming members
• some r part of regional TB like NAFTA

Question 19

NAFTA

Answer 19

• was a treaty between canada, usa n mexico
• signed in 1992 n commiteted the 3 countries to removing any trade barriers bteween them
• eg tarriffs n custom duties on imports n exports
• this alllowed corporations from canada n usa to take advantage of lower labour costs in mexico n they was able to import high quality goods from canada n usa
• also had agreements about how to resolve trade disputes between 3 countries

Question 20

nafta pros n cons

Answer 20

• pros: increased trade n foreign investment between countries
• cons: issues in some sectors eg family farmers in mexico have struggled to compete w/cheap agricultural imports from usa
• it was replaced by new US-mexico-canada aggreement in 2020

Question 21

the EU

Answer 21

• common market area-most barriers to trade n movement of ppl,goods n money between member countries have been removed
• some member countries use a shared currency(euro) to remove these barriers even further
• eu members have shared policies on trade w countries outside eu
• but it isnt a trade bloc- its also developed its own political aggreements n institutions eg eu parliament
• eu members have joint policies or make joint decisions on issues like agriculture, climate change n foreign policy
• the eu parliament is an eg of how the eu has led to closer political unity

Question 22

8.9a

montreal protocol

Answer 22

• the ozone layer=mostly found above earths surface in stratosphere. it absorbs suns harmful ultraviolet rays=make earth safe
• 1970s-scientists realised industrial chemicals such as CFCs were damaging ozone layer
• 1987-un set up agreement between countries to limit n ban production n use of cfcs= called montreal protocal on substances that deplete the ozone layer n was signed by every country in world
• 2010- it succeeded in phasing out 98% of ozone damaging chemicals that were being emitted in 1990
• biggest area of ozone damage above antractic has shown signs of recovery
• but from 2012-2017 there was an ^ in emissions of one type of cfc suggesting some countries broke global ban in this period
• global ozone levels r expected to fully recover by around 2050, but damage over antarctica may not fully recover until around 2100

Question 23

CITES

stops ppl trading endangered species

Answer 23

• the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora n fauna
• international agreement between govs about trading wild plant/animal species n products made by them
• convention start in 1975, covers around 6,000 animal species n 32,000 plant species
• these r sorted into 3 categories-depend on how high risk of them being traded internationally is
• trade involving most endangered species eg tigers=strictest rules
• some low risk ones can be traded if monitored n regulated
• it holds training workshops to help countries to enforce treaty n tackle illegal trade
• can be enforced by national legislation
• its helped to make trade more sustainable n protect some species
• eg the vicuna was seriously endangered in 1970s bc of demand for its fur but populations have now recovered- 2020 its 450,000

Question 24

cons of cites

Answer 24

• sanctions=rarely imposed
• membership=voluntary n can be slow to take action
• eg pangolins were designed as threatened w/extinction in 2014 but werent added to cites most endangered list till 2017

Question 25

8.9b

the un convetion on law of the sea

Answer 25

• covers governance of sea incl enviromental management n use of marine resources
• under convention, countries have responsibility to protect oceans n marine creatures
• eg countries have right to fish, but only w/in sustainable limits
• ensures all countries sign up cooperate in protecting the marine enviroment
• provides basis for laws for using marine resoruces more sustainably but dont cover all- some aspects=covered by other organisations n agreements
• some argue to really protect oceans there needs to be overarching treaty that covers all aspects of marine conservation n sustainability
• its hard to enforce- eg some places get around restrictions on fishing by moving their catch onto other boats in international waters
• exclusive economic zones were adopted as part of unclos
• these=areas where coastal nations have exclusive rights to resources w/in 200 nautical miles of their shore

Question 26

helsinki water convention

Answer 26

• many countries share water resources
• eg rivers flow thru many countries or lakes that border more than 1 country
• 1996- convention on protection n use of transboundary watercourses n international lakes came into force after being set up in helsinki to help countries manage share water sustainably
• helped countries develop agreements about specific water resources
• supported lots of monitoring n research around water quality eg monitor chloride levels
• but not all countries have joined the water convention-2022 47 countries have ratified convention

Question 27

the millennium ecosystem assesment

Answer 27

• un set up MA in 2001 to carry out global study of state of enviroment n monitor change
• idea was it would provide scientific basis for tackling enviromental problems n impact they can have on human wellbeing
• over 1360 scientists n experts contributed to MA
• findings of ma: most earths ecosystems r damaged n degraded n human activites have caused huge biodiversity loss
• results were used to inform enviromental policy n on going work on exisiting agreements like convention on biological diversity
• but some countries/organisations=ignore results
• ma=summary of global enviromental situation but didnt have any political/legal power to drive change

Question 28

8.9c

the antarctic treaty system
protects antarctica from exploitation

Answer 28

• isnt owned by any1 country but countries made territorial claims to it
• aggreements have been set up to make sure its governed peacefully n used for scientific research not exploted for its resources
• signed by 55 countries

Question 29

antarctic treaty 1959 rules

Answer 29

• antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons- no army bases or weapons r allowed on antarctica
• countries should cooperate on scientific research in antarctica by sharing plans, researchers n results
• antarctica should remain in global commons- indivual countries cant make any claims to it
• protocol on enviromental protection to antarctic treaty=sign 1991 n added to AT- banned all mining n helps portect plants/animals/pollution etc
• under 1991 protocol an enviromental impact assesment is required for any new activities

Question 30

antarctica treaty as a success

Answer 30

• ended territorial claims being made n its remained unexploited
• ## scientists working there have collabed=^ knowledge

Question 31

unsuccess AT

Answer 31

• theres no system to ensure all countries abide by rules
• if disputes between countries then theyre encouraged to negotiate
• or disputes go to interntaionl court of justice
• but all countries must meet a consensus
• so tackling issues=slow n difficult
• eg between 2012-16 plans for antarctic marine reserves repeatedly failed bc of opposition from russia n ukraine
• number of countries involved in treaty n diff priorities can make decisions around further enviromental protection hard
• although its a success theres big threats the treaty cant deal w/ like climate chnage=warm sea=^ melt rates n encourage spread of non-native species