Ethics and Philosophy. Flashcards
(165 cards)
1
Q
What do we refer to people’s behaviour as?
A
We commonly refer to people’s behaviour, choices and attitudes as moral or immoral, ethical or unethical.
2
Q
What does relative mean?
A
The expulsion of a social or cultural norm.
3
Q
What does subjective mean?
A
A matter of opinion or taste.
4
Q
What does Equality mean?
A
Equality is the state or quality of being equal.
5
Q
When was the Equality act introduced?
A
2010.
6
Q
What are two areas where inequality can occur?
A
Age and gender.
7
Q
How can inequality occur in gender?
A
- Everyday sexism.
- Gender pay gap.
8
Q
When was the race relations act passed?
A
2000.
9
Q
How can inequality occur in disability?
A
- Benefits.
- Work opportunities.
10
Q
What does strict equality mean?
A
Everyone has the same amount of goods.
11
Q
What does equality of need mean?
A
Equality is best achieved by satisfying people’s needs. Those who have greater needs should simply receive more resources.
12
Q
What does equality of desert mean?
A
Goods should be distributed to the extent that people deserve them. Those who do the most deserve the most resources.
13
Q
What does Christianity teach about gender equality?
A
Some biblical verses emphasise that men and women are equal in God’s eyes however others suggest that men and women have distinct God-given roles.
14
Q
What does Christianity teach about racial equality?
A
The New Testament is more progressive in the way that it talks about when Jesus told the Jews that it was a Samaritan who help the injured man left to die beside the road.
However, the Old Testament does have mentions of how slaves should be treated.
15
Q
What does Christianity teach about disability equality?
A
- Many of Jesus’ miracles involve him curing the deaf, blind or those unable to walk.
- While these biblical examples clearly establish Christ as a great healer, they sit awkwardly with modern conceptions of disability.
- Campaigners for disability equality are not seeking pity or healing but respect.
- Joni Eareckson Tada emphasised the role disabled people have in the faith.
16
Q
Gender.
A
- ‘One is not born, but becomes a woman.
- Simone Du Beauvior’s insight is that there is a difference between an individual’s biological sex and their gender.
- The state of affairs is sometimes referred to as a patriarchy.
17
Q
What were the waves of feminism?
A
- 1} First-wave feminism: The suffragette movement founded by Emmeline Pankhurst is often seen as embodying the spirit of early feminism in Britain.
- 2} Second-wave feminism: This wave expanded on the legal demands made by the first wave focusing on social issues.
- 3} Third wave feminism: Influenced by post-modern theorists. Sought empowerment for women.
- 4} Fourth wave feminism: A new wave has begun in the age of social media.
18
Q
When did women get the right to vote?
A
1928.
19
Q
When did Martin Luther King come to fame?
A
He came to fame after the Montgomery Bus boycott.
20
Q
What happened in 2012?
A
George Zimmerman shot dead Trayvon Martin.
21
Q
What is intersectionality?
A
The idea that different forms of discrimination and prejudice are socially interlinked.
22
Q
What is stewardship?
A
Stewardship is a theological idea which holds God has given the earth to human beings and as such, he expects us to look after it.
23
Q
What is conservation?
A
Conservation is more closely associated with 20th century secular environmental ethics. It is concerned with how humans should interact with and understand the nature of the environment.
24
Q
What are sentient beings?
A
Beings able to feel pleasure and pain.
25
What is intrinsic value?
Value in themselves.
26
What is instrumental value?
Value for a particular purpose.
27
What are Christian values on the environment?
Many of their attitudes are derived from biblical ideas.
28
What are Western philosophical traditions?
The Western philosophical tradition has historically had a tendency to give very little consideration to the welfare or protection of animals. Instead, following on from Aristotle, animals have often been judged to be the subordinates of human beings due to their inferior rational capacity.
29
What biblical source support this view?
Genesis: 'let us make mankind in our image: in our likeness, so that they may rule over the fish in the sea and the birds in the sky, over the livestock and all the wild animals, and over all the creatures that move along the ground".
30
What does this portray?
Such a passage appears to portray humankind as the divinely-ordained master of nature and the animal kingdom as its mere servant.
31
What groups fight for animal rights?
PETA actively campaign for animal welfare, while atheist philosophers such as Peter Singer have produced powerful ethical arguments which set out the moral obligations humans have to other living beings.
32
What important laws have been made regarding animal rights?
1822: The United Kingdom passed the Act to prevent cruel and improper treatment of cattle.
2007: The Animal welfare act.
33
What is sustainability?
Sustainability can be defined as the earth's capability to continue supporting life. 21st century society relies heavily on fossil fuels.
34
How much waste does each household in the UK produce?
592 kg.
35
What is incineration?
Burning waste materials.
36
What is the issue with landfills?
Unsustainability.
37
What is a sustainable solution?
A zero waste policy.
38
What is climate change?
The large scale long term shift in the planet's weather patterns or average temperatures.
39
What are the effects of climate change?
Ice caps shrinking, rising sea levels and freak weather events.
40
What is the Christian concept of stewardship?
The traditional Christian approach is drawn from genesis. However, many Christians today may be more inclined to emphasise stewardship.
41
Is it instrumental or intrinsic?
Instrumental.
42
What is shallow ecology?
It claims that conservation and protection of the environmental protection should take place because it is in our interest to do so.
43
What did Arne Naess do?
He came up with the term 'deep ecology'. He argued in favour of deep ecology.
44
What did Arne Naess argue?
He argued for the intrinsic value of the earth and that humans should in no way damage the environment.
45
What did Richard Routley say?
He argued that the prejudicial favouring of humans over other animals is 'human chauvinism'.
46
What is the analysis of the deep ecology movement?
The deep ecology movement argues that an intrinsic approach is needed in order to truly protect the environment.
47
What is the Gaia hypothesis?
It was developed primarily by James Lovelock and was viewed with scepticism but is now studied in some areas of the earth sciences. It argues that the Earth is a self-regulating system and by itself, regulated the environment so that it is perfectly suited to life on earth.
48
What are the strengths and weaknesses of this?
It challenges anthropocentric understanding and is a secular theory.
It is wrong to attribute the idea of intrinsic value to a non-sentient being.
49
What is the central concept of Islam?
Tawhid. Allah's trustees are responsible for maintaining the unity of his creation.
50
What duty do Muslims have towards the Earth?
They see themselves as having a responsibility towards the world and the environment.
51
What was the Enlightenment?
The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Some of its key thinkers, John Locke and David Hume influenced Bentham.
52
When was the Industrial revolution?
The Industrial revolution took place in England between 1760 and 1840, which is almost exactly the time Bentham was alive. It was a time of great change in England.
53
What was the impact of utilitarianism on political and social reform?
- Utilitarianism provided an important philosophy behind many changes in society that helped address the pain and suffering that was brought about by the Industrial revolution. Bentham wanted to change society and the impact of Utilitarianism is testament to the strength, relevance and popularity of the ideas.
- Utilitarianism brought about social change through its emphasis on the importance of the majority of the people.
54
What does consequentialist mean?
Utilitarianism places ethical judgement on whether an action leads to the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
55
What does relativist mean?
Utilitarianism believes what is right will depend on the situation. Sometimes an action will be right but at other times it will not be. It all depends on whether the action will produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.
56
What does instrumental mean?
Utilitarianism believes that no moral actions have intrinsic value, only instrumental value if they they produce the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people.
57
What are the implications of consequentialist ethical theories?
- There is no consideration of the attitude or intention of the moral agent. This causes a problem for example if someone intentionally commits an evil act but it accidentally produces a morally good outcome.
- It is very hard to predict the outcome of actions, especially secondary or indirect consequences, because it is based on unknown future events. Therefore, a focus on intentions or adherence to moral laws might be considered more practical and reliable.
- It is right to focus on outcomes and consequences as only they have an effect on the lives of others. We are naturally concerned with the effect our actions will have on others and are generally forward-looking.
58
What is utility?
- Jeremy Bentham is often considered the founder of the utilitarian philosophy. His ground-breaking introduction to the principles of morals and legislation opens with famous words. Crucially, Bentham is arguing that being ruled by pain and pleasure is just the way humans are. We have no choice in the matter: we must seek pleasure, and we must avoid pain. he goes on to argue that basing our ethical decision-making on anything else would simply be foolish.
59
What is the principle of utility?
Having made this claim about human nature, Bentham goes on to make his normative claim. This is the principle of utility which states: when faced with an ethical decision, we should choose the course of action which maximises pleasure and minimises pain for the greatest number of people.
60
How is utility calculated?
Bentham listed seven factors which must be taken into account when calculating the actual amount of pleasure an act will produce. They included intensity, duration and fecundity. The calculus is a distinctive feature of Bentham's version of utilitarianism. Significantly, it maintains that ethical decisions should be made on a case by case basis.
61
What are the weaknesses of act utilitarianism?
- Happiness cannot be quantified in the way the hedonic calculus assumes.
- It is too simplistic to apply the complexities of ethical decision making and the different types of ethical situation that arises.
- Other values are arguably more important than happiness.
62
What are the strengths?
- Maximising happiness and minimising pain is arguably how most people already live their lives and it is seen as desirable.
- The hedonic calculus is easy to use and provides a clear, practical measure and tool for thinking about happiness and exactly what kind of happiness should be pursued.
63
What did Mill think?
Mill's sensibilities are reflected in his more nuanced account of pleasure. Mill is much more concerned with the quality of pleasure.
64
What is rule utilitarianism?
The theory which holds that the right action is one which follows rules that if, universally obeyed, would create the maximum amount of happiness and the minimum amount of pain.
65
What are the strengths and weaknesses of this?
- It recognizes that we have a strong internal conviction that an action cannot be right purely because it produces happiness.
- Rule utilitarianism is easier to apply in ethical decision making than act utilitarianism because there are clear rules to follow.
- It removes the need to work out how best to apply the principle of utility in every situation, which could be difficult and time consuming.
- It still allows some flexibility with the notion of strong and weak utilitarianism.
Weaknesses:
- Mill does not provide a way to categorise pleasures in this way.
- The focus on rules removes the benefits of situationalism and consequentialism.
-
66
What is preference utilitarianism?
Holds that the right action is the one which satisfies the greatest number of people.
67
What are the strengths and weaknesses?
Strengths:
- It is easier to take into account preferences because people can clearly state what their preference is in a situation.
- It is easier to satisfy preferences as identified at that time than try to achieve lasting happiness in the future.
- It takes into account when preferences might not be happiness but something else considered more valuable or serving a greater purpose.
Weaknesses:
- There could be diffuculties in making decisions between conflicting or complivcated preferences.
- We do not recognise the preference of certain individuals on moral grounds.
- Some people might not be able to express their true preference.
68
What are the strengths and weaknesses of negative utilitarianism?
Strengths:
- There are more ways to do harm than good so the focus should be avoiding harm.
- Harm is more important to avoid than it is to achieve happiness. Someone would rather ensure against pain before pursuing happiness.
Weaknesses:
- Some people have argued that the logical constitution of negative utilitarianism is that in order to avoid suffering, the most effective way is to ensure the painless death of mankind.
- It does not recognise that some suffering might be valuable.
- Negative utilitarianism may also be vulnerable to 'experience machine' objections: if the aim is just to avoid pain, does it matter if we are no more than brains in vats?
69
When was situation ethics developed?
Situation ethics was developed during the late 1960s and 1970s. A time of great change both in the UK and in the USA.
70
What were the events that caused people's values to radically change?
Women in the workforce: Following world War 2, more women entered the workforce. This changed the family structure and dynamic.
Vietnam War: The USA's war in Vietnam became very unpopular because of the many American young men who were dying for a war many people saw as pointless.
Kennedy's assassination: The shooting of President Kennedy caused huge shock, especially as he was a popular president. This made people feel unsafe and worried for the future of their country.
Civil Rights movement: The Civil Rights movement led to mass protests. This challenged social attitudes at the time.
The contraceptive pill: This enabled women to control their fertility.
Sexual revolution: This was at a time when attitudes to sexuality transformed.
Hippy/teenager/student culture: More liberal and alternative attitudes to fashion.
71
What was the ethical background?
The increasingly liberal views in society were at odds with conservative Christian views. Young people were beginning to question traditional sources of authority and go against their teaching. People began to feel they could decide for themselves the right way to behave and did not need the strict rules of divine command ethics which they saw as outdated.
72
What does agape mean?
It is an atttitude of generosity and respect to others that expects nothing in return.
73
Who was Joseph Fletcher?
- He wrote about situation ethics.
- He believed that bible thumping and moral condemnation was not a suitable response to the dramatic shifts in social attitudes.
- He felt that a situational approach was needed.
- He wanted a legalistic approach.
74
What are the three approaches?
Antinomianism: The view that there are no moral laws or rules.
Situationalism: Behaviour is chiefly responsible to immediaate situations.
Legalism: The view that morality should be based on laws or commands that must always be followed.
75
What were Fletcher's four presuppositions?
Pragmatism, relativism, positivism, personalism.
76
What is the explanation of pragmatism?
Moral demands should be practical and achieve the intended outcome or result, which is love.
77
What is the explanation of relativism?
All situations should be assessed on how best to demonstrate love, rather than through following moral laws.
78
What is the explanation of positivism?
Being able to say that God is love on the basis of faith, not reason or human experience. The moral agent has to decide, through their faith in god, that love is the most important thing of all.
79
What is the experience of personalism?
Demands that the needs and importance of people are considered first, not the demands of moral laws.
80
What did Fletcher also develop?
Fletcher also developed six fundamental principles which explain how agape should be understood and applied in ethical situations.
81
What are the fundamental principles?
1} 'Only one thing is intrinsically good; namely good; namely love; nothing else at all: the only intrinsically good things - that is good in itself - is love.
2} 'The ruling norm of Christian decizsion is love: nothing else: The Jewish laws have been replaced by Jesus command to show love to one's neighbour.
3} 'Love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed, nothing else: Love and justice are the same thing because justice is giving a man what he owed and man is owed love.
4} 'Love wills the neighbour's good, whether we like him or not': If love is the outcome of one's actions, then the means of actions taken to achieve this are not morally significant. It is only the the outcome that matters.
5} 'Love's decisions are made situationally, not prescriptively': Decisions must be made then and there in the situation so that specific factors can be taken into account. Decisions should not be made on the basis of laws that prescribe how to behave.
82
What are the means and ends?
The means is the action performed. The end is the result of that action. Means are done to achieve certain ends.
83
What is natural moral law?
It is the ethical theory of the Catholic Church that there is a law inherent in the world from God which must be followed.
84
What does absolutist mean?
Absolutist theories of ethics state that one version of morality holds in all places, at all times, and for all people, it is universal.
85
What is legalism?
At the simplest level, legalism can be understood as saying that when it comes to morality, we should make our decisions based on previously established laws.
86
What is natural moral law?
Natural moral law theory is both legalistic and absolutist.
87
Who did Aquinas take inspiration from?
Aristotle.
88
Who is Thomas Aquinas?
Aquinas became a leading figure in a movement known as scholasticism.
89
What is telos?
Telos is a greek term which Aquinas adopted from Aristotle. It means end or purpose.
90
What is eudaimonia mean?
It means good living.
91
What does purpose mean?
The reason for which something is created or for which it exists.
92
What does reason mean?
The human ability to think logically and make judgements.
93
What were the two sources Aquinas believed that humans could use to understand this purpose God had given humanity?
The Bible and the world: The Bible is considered relevation so it reveals or shows something about God. The world also reveals God's moral law because it was designed by God and therefore has signs of its creator in its design.
Reason: Aquinas believed very strongly in the ability of human reason to gain knowledge about God. Aquinas argued that through reason, we could know what actions would fulfil our natural purpose.
94
What else did Aquinas believe?
- Aquinas believed that humanity was given reason and freedom by God so that we would be able to discover and fulfil our natural purpose. All humans had the ability to reason which meant all were able to follow natural moral law if they chose to.
- Aquinas believes that everyone has a specific purpose unique to them that could be fulfiled through the skills and talents given to them by God.
95
What does precept mean?
Another name for rule.
96
What is a primary precept?
Fundamental rules which can never be broken and from which secondary precepts are drawn.
97
What is a secondary precept?
Rules developed on the basis of primary precepts.
98
What is the key precept?
At the heart of natural law theory is a single, uncontroversial moral principle from which all else is derived: that we should aim to do good and to avoid doing evil.
99
What are the primary precepts?
Aquinas believed that through reason, the Bible and the world, it became clear that there were a number of primary precepts that formed the basis of natural moral law. Although Aquinas did not provide a list himself, it is clear that he thought the following five rules were the most significant:
- To preserve life.
- To reproduce.
- To educate children.
- To worship God.
- To create an orderly, harmonious society.
100
What are the secondary precepts?
From these primary precepts, Aquinas argued that moral rules could be deduced which can be used in ethical decision making so that humans can fulfil their natural purpose. The secondary precepts also show us the legalistic character of Aquinas' ethics.
101
What are real and apparent goods?
Aquinas distinguished between real and apparent goods. Real goods are actions which are consistent with natural purposes and are morally good. Apparent goods are actions which the moral agent thinks are real goods but they have been mistaken. They have not used their reason correctly and have arrived at a conclusion about how to act that is morally wrong and inconsistent with human purposes. Aquinas believed that apparent goods were arrived at by mistake, rather than deliberately.
102
What is proportionalism?
Proportionalism is an ethical theory most commonly associated with Bernard Hoose. It is often seen as an attractive middle way between the absolutism of natural law and other situational ethics.
103
What is the doctrine of double effect?
Even before Hoose formally introduced the idea of proportionalism, natural law theorists recognised that absolutism had its limitations. While Aquinas held that the primary precepts were absolute, there are rules which must be followed at all times and in all places.
104
What did thinkers suggest?
In its place, they have suggested a new natural law theory which concentrates on the concrete qualities which are neccessary for moral goodness.
105
What about abortion?
Pro-life stances can be justified by appeal to the tenets of Natural law theory. Two primary precepts to preserve life and to reproduce can be brought to bear on the issue: if we accept that an embryo or foetus is a life then abortion by destroying it, directly contradicts the precept to preserve life. Similarly, abortion also directly contradicts the precept to reproduce.
That said, the doctrine of double effect has often been invoked by the Catholic church to justify abortion in special circumstances.
106
Euthanasia.
Euthanasia always involves ending a life, hence it breaks the primary precept of life preservation. From this basis we might conclude that natural law theory holds euthanasia is always wrong.
107
What are the strengths and weaknesses of this?
Strengths:
- Aquinas' approach to human nature and its purposes is compatible and common to everyone.
- It is an objective theory which holds that certain actions are inherently and absolutely right or wrong.
- The doctrine of double effect and other adaptations such as proportionalism gave natural law theory a degree of flexibility.
Weaknesses:
- Nature does not always seem to be imbued with goodness.
- Atheists are unlikely to follow this supposedly universal ethic becausse it is based on the premises that God created the universe and the moral law within it.
- Aquinas' focus on reproduction raises moral issues for couples who cannot reproduce.
108
What is sexual ethics?
Sexual ethics is the discussion of what constitutes moral sexual practice.
109
What is premarital sex?
Premarital sex refers to sex outside of marriage, literally before marriage. There are numerous arguments for and against premarital sex.
110
What are the arguments for and against premarital sex?
For:
- It is an individual's choice when they have sex.
- Marriage has become less important in today's society.
- There can be loving, committed and stable relationships outside of marriage.
- It is not illegal and is a common occurence.
- Religious teaching is not relevant to atheists or agnostics.
Against:
- It incresases the risk and spread of sexually transmitted diseeases.
- Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions condemn it as immoral for scriptural reasons.
- There can be psychological or emotional problems from having sex outside a truly comitted relationship.
- It risks pregnancy in environments that are not a stable family unit.
111
What is adultery?
Adultery is sex with someone who is not your married partner.
112
What is the Christian view?
Christianity traditionally condemns extra and premarital sex. It is considered to be against the will of God and contrary to the need for self-control against phtsical desires.
113
What are the arguments for and against contraception?
For:
- It allows family planning and for couples to limit the size of their family.
- It prevents unwanted pregnancies and helps ensure children are born to couples who want them.
- It recognises the purpose of sex as an important part of relationships.
- It reduces the risk and spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS.
Against:
- Denominations within the Judeo-Christian and Islamic traditions condemn it.
- Contraception encourages promiscous relationships because there is not the risk of pregancy.
- The primary and natural purpose of sex is procreation, not pleasure.
114
What is the Christian view?
There is no explicit mention of contraception in the Bible, apart from Genesis 38:9-10. Today the Catholic Church condemns the use of contraception although it does allow use of the rhythm method. In contrast, the Church of England states that contraception is normally permissible and is not contrary to the will of God. They argue it is up to a couple's own conscience to decide on the number and frequency of children they have.
115
What is homosexuality?
Homosexuality continues to be a divisive issue, particularly in religious issues. It was decriminalised in the UK in 1967 and in 2004, homosexual couples were legally able to form civil partnerships.
116
What are the arguments for and against homosexual relationships?
- Individuals should be allowed to love whoever they wish.
- Consenting adults can engage in sexual activities of their choice in private.
- It is also considered that any discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation is against an individual's human right to equality and fair treatment.
- Most commonly from a religious basis.
- It is unnatural.
- Cannot result in procreation.
- Marriage is intended to be between a man and a woman.
117
What is the Christian view?
Until quite recently, all Christian denominations condemned homosexuality, although Jesus said nothing about it.
The views of the Catholic Church are particularly influenced by the thinking of Aquinas on natural moral and the view that homosexuality is unnatural because it cannot lead to reproduction.
The Church of England believes that while homosexuality is not as a desirable a state as heterosexuality, homosexual individuals should not in any way be discriminated against.
118
What is the analysis of Jack Dominian?
Dr Dominian argued that the Church should rethink its approach to sexual ethics and accept non-traditional forms of loving relationships. He considered sex a gift from God that should be celebrated so long as it takes place between two loving partners. Crucially, he claimed that the historical natural law conception of sex as being primarily procreative in purpose was too narrow.
119
What does Peter Vardy argue?
Vardy believes that love today only lasts so long as both parties' needs are satisfied and so we live in a world of utilitarian relationships which only last so long as the pleasure they bring outweighs the pain.
120
Are ethical theories successful in sexual matters?
If there is one theory which best captures the dominant approach to sexuality in Britain today, it is liberalism which is by John Stuart Mill. Mill's view is that society has no right to interfere with any action that takes place between consenting adults.
121
Are religious teachings still relevant?
- Thinkers such as Vardy and Dominian strive to make the Christian understanding of love relevant to the modern world.
- Dominian's theories of love and sexuality were developed in a pyschoanalytic framework.
- In the Puzzle of Sex, Vardy tends to stitch together only those philosophical and pyschological insights which support the convictions of his faith.
122
What is the design argument?
The design argument, often called the teleological argument takes several forms. Coming from the Greek 'telos' meaning order or purpose, it may be concerned with the search for meaning or purpose in the world, usually starting from finding meaning and purpose in parts of the world or it is concerned with the progress of the world and its parts towards an ultimate goal. This focuses on an interest in regularity.
123
What is the first form of the argument?
The first form of the argument is an analogical argument, which depends on drawing an analogy between the world and objects of human design.
124
What is the second form of the argument?
The second form of the argument is the inductive argument, based on the observation that the universe demonstrates regular motion both in its parts and in the whole.
125
What issues does the argument consider?
Order: Regularities in the behaviour of objects and laws in the universe.
Benefit: The universe is an orderly structure and provides all that is neccessary for life.
Suitability for human life: The order exhibited by the universe provides the ideal environment for human life to exist.
Appearance: The appearance of the universe, which could be said to exhibit beauty, suggests that it is intended for something more than basic survival.
126
What is Aquinas' fifth way?
In the first three of the Five ways in the Summa Theologica, Aquinas rejected the possibility of an infinite regress of movers and causes to explain the existence of contingent, mutable beings and concluded that a first mover and first cause to which he gave the name God was a neccessary requisite of the universe.
127
What did he observe in the Fifth way?
In the Fifth way, he observes that non-rational beings nevertheless act in a way that leads to the best result.
128
What premises is this based on?
This form of the argument is based on the following premises:
- There is beneficial order in the universe, i.e. there are things in the univsrse that work towards an end or purpose.
- This beneficial order could not happen by chance.
- Many objects do not have the intelligence to work towards an end or purpose.
- Therefore, they must be directed by something that does have intelligence.
- Therefore, God exists as the explanation of beneficial order.
129
What is this argument?
It is clear that the design argument, is highly empirical. It draws its premises from observation of nature and the world that is based on our experience. It is highly accessible requiring the observer to note nothing more than the world in which he or she already lives. It is an a posteriori argument.
130
What is William Paley's analogy
William Paley's analogy of the watch has become the classic form of the analogical argument. His analogy is that if you came across a watch on a heath, you would assume it had a designer.
131
What are the criticisms of the analogical argument?
- Made a fundamental problem by using the watch analogy.
- Paley makes an assumption.
- Can't have come about by chance.
132
What did David Hume say about the analogical form of the argunent?
David Hume criticised the analogical form of the argument. Crucially, he argues that the analogy on which Paley's form of the argument depends is unsound, because it argues from that which we know to that of which we are ignorant. How can we legitimately draw an analogy between that which we know to be limited and imperfect to that which we claim is unlimited and perfect? Furthermore, it is not clear whether the analogy is intended to refer to parts of the universe or the universe as a whole.
133
What else did Hume observe?
From a philosophical point of view, Hume also obseved that we cannot assume like that effects infer like causes.
134
What else did Hume argue?
Although Paley later attempted to redress this problem, Hume argued that to draw an analogy between the universe and the works of man was highly dangerous to the theist because it led inevitably to anthropomorphism.
135
What is the Epicurean Hypothesis?
The Epicurean hypothesis suggests that, in any quantum interaction, all possible states are actualised in some universe or other with universes constantly diversifying.
136
What are examples of poor design?
- The pointless existence of the appendix in humans, which can lead to fatal appendecitis.
- The existence of unneccessary wings in flightless birds such as ostriches.
- Portions of DNA that do not appear to serve any purpose.
- Congenital and genetic disorders such as Hungtinton's disease.
- The common malformation of the human spinal column that leads to many painful and recurring conditions.
- Photosynthetic plants, which reflect green light even though the sun's peak output it at this wavelength, whereas a more optimal system of photosynthesis would use the entire solar spectrum, resulting in black plants.
137
What is the angle of probability?
Richard Swinburne approached the argument from the angle of probability, suggesting that the evidence of design and order in the universe increases the probability of the existence of God. Swinburne's argument is based on the remarkable degree and extent of order in the universe.
138
What seven features does Swinburne observe?
- The very existence of the universe.
- The fact that the universe is ordered.
- The existence of consciousness.
- Human opportunities to do good.
- The pattern of history.
- The evidence of miracles.
- Religious experience.
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What is the providential natuee of the universe?
Swinburne argues that God is the best explanation for the design that is evident in the universe, and points not only to the order and purpose that it displays but to the providential nature of the universe. It contains within it everything that is neccessary for survival, and natural laws function within the universe making it a place where humans can develop.
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What is Swinburne's argument?
Overall the argument is one from probability: there is a probability that God exists that is considered greater than the probability that he does not exist. Such a God does not come under the control of the laws of nature and he must be the only designing God because other Gods would simply be unneccessary.
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What is the aesthetic form of the argument?
Another form of the argument is the aesthetic form, which observes that the universe possesses a natural beauty that goes beyond that which is neccessary to live.
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What does F.R Tennant observe?
F.R. Tennant observes: 'Nature is not just beautiful in places; it is saturated with beauty - on the telescopic and microscopic scale. Our scientific knowledge brings us no nearer to understanding the beauty of music'. From an intelligibility point of view, beauty seems to be superfluous and to have little survival value'.
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What did Tennant's argument postulate?
Tennant's argument postulated that this view of the world was also to be considered superior to others in that it catered for moral and spiritual dimensions.
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What five key observations did he make?
- The universe is intelligible and not chaotic.
- The significance of the evolutionary system is that it underpins difrection and progress.
- The universe is absolutely sutitable to sustain life.
- The created universe exhibits standards and values of aesthetic value.
- Humanity possesses an awareness of moral worth and works in harmony with nature.
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What poses a challenge to this argument?
The problem of evil and suffering of course poses a serious challenge to this form of the argument as well. To argue that any aspects of the world lack beauty and therefore count against the existence of God reflects only what humans believe that a loving and omnipotent God should have created, and that to question the value of any aspects of creation is impertintent because God is not bound by human conceptions of perfection or adequate design.
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What is the anthropic principle?
Having established the probability of God's existence, Tennant extended the argument to include observations and ideas that come from evolutionary theories in the form of the anthropic principle, which proposes that the reason and purpose for the universe is the support of human life.
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What is the ontological argument?
The ontological argument has continued to be popular and to present a strong case for providing grounds for proving the existence of God by use of reason alone.
The argument fundamentally rests on the premise that there is a universe, but that existence is contingent - it depends on something else to exist. Whatever provides the explanation for the universe cannot be contingent itself, but is neccessary.
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What is the form of the argument?
Unlike the cosmological and teleological arguments, the ontological argument is a priori. This means that the argument does not rely on the evidence of the senses or the world around us but rather it moves by stages of logical argument to a conclusion which is self-evidently true or logically neccessary. The argument is also deductive.
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What does this mean?
This means that the argument does not rely on the evidence of the senses, or the world around us, for either its premises or its conclusion, but rather it moves by stages of logical argument to a conclusion which is self-evidently true.
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What else is the argument?
The argument is also deductive and analytic. The premidses of a deductive argument contain the conclusion that it reaches, and the argument is structured in such a way as to make the conclusion the only possible one that can be deduced from its premises.
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What are the origins of the argument?
Anselm prayed for a single short argument which would prove almost everything about God, including his nature and existence.
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How did Anselm try to prove the existence of God?
The process of Anselm's reasoning led him to the conclusion that 'thanks be to thee good Lord, thanks be to thee, because i now understand by thy light what i formerly believed by thy gift'. Effectively, Anselm was trying to prove the existence of God by means of reductio ad absurdum.
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How can the argument be broken down?
The argument can be broken down into three stages:
1} The definition of God as 'that than nothing greater can be conceived.
2} Why the non-existence of God is logically impossible.
3} Why 'the fool' believes that which is impossible to be true.
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How does Anselm define God?
Anselm's argument is based on the very word 'God' and what is meant when the word is used. He makes an assumption which is crucial for the argument to work, which is that God is effectively shorthand for 'that than which nothing greater can be conceived'. His argument is that when the believer speaks of God, they intuitively understand what is meant by the concept of God - that he is greater than all other beings - not spatially of course, but in the sense that he is supremely perfect. 'That than which nothing greater can be conceived' must possess all perfection in order to be so described and when we speak of God we speak of such a being.
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What else did Anselm argue?
Furthermore, Anselm argues that if such a being does indeed possess all perfections, then he must exist. This apparently radical assumption is based on the principle that existence itself is perfection. Anselm places existence into the same category as he would place goodness, love, wisdom or justice for example, and by doing so treats it as a defining characteristic.
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What is neccessary existence?
In all this, Anselm makes clear that his understanding of God is of a being possessing neccessary existence. This concept was integral to the cosmological argument but it applies differently to the ontological argument. In this case, God's neccessary existence is de dicto neccesary - by definition. Because the definition of God requires that he should exist, to deny his existence would be absurd. When this is fully understand, it is impossible to deny the existence of God.
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What is Anselm aware of?
Anselm is of course, aware the existence of God can, and is denied by the atheist. In response to this, he cites Psalm 53 - 'the fool has said in his heart there is no God'. The Psalmist's fool is the atheist who, Anselm observes, says what is impossible to say since it cannot possibly be true: that God does not exist.
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What are the strengths and weaknesses of the argument?
Strengths:
- It holds out the hope of a proof.
- Its starting point is valid for both believer and atheist.
- It is an intellectually stimulating argument that continues to be studied and debated.
Weaknesses:
- Not coherent.
- Mutually inconsistent.
- Leading to a useless God.
- Assumed by Anselm to be beyond criticism.
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What did Descartes' say?
Five hundred years after Anselm, the influential thinker Rene Descartes reformulated the ontological proof, in terms of the concept of neccessary existence. He believed that, in proving the existence of God, he would proceed by unaided human reason, discounting the evidence of the senses.
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How could he conceive of the existence of a perfect being?
1} I exist.
2} In my mind, I have the concept of a perfect being.
3} As an imperfect being, I could not have conjured up the concept of a perfect being.
4} The concept of a perfect being must therefore have originated from the perfect being itself.
5} A perfect being must exist in order to be perfect.
6} Therefore, a perfect being exists.
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What are the objections to Anselm's proof?
Aquinas:
- Aquinas's objection to Anselm's argument and his method was concerned with both the ambiguity of the terms Anselm used, and also with the intellectual arrogance which he believed underpinned the argument. Although Aquinas acknowledged that God's existence neccessarily involves his nature as a perfect being, he rejected the assumption of the proof that fallible human intellect can prove the existence of God. Weak human reason can conceieve of God not existing and Aquinas, suggested, only God could understand the ontological proof.
- Aqiuinas questioned another important aspect of the ontological argument, claiming that Anselm was guilty of making a 'transitional error' - that is moving from the definition of God to the existence of God. Furthermore, Aquinas observed that Anselm was guilty of making an assumption about the definition of God that was not neccessarily shared by all believers.
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What was the perfect island?
1} I can conceieve of an island that than which no greater island can be thought.
2} Such an island must possess all perfections.
3} Existence is a perfection.
4} Therefore, the island exists.
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What is fundamental to Anselm and Descartes' form of the ontological argument?
Fundamental to both Anselm's and Descartes' form of the ontological argument is that existence is a predicate - an attribute or quality that can be possessed or lacked such as size, colour, shape, temperature and intelligence. These may or may not belong to a thing or being and their presence or abscene is part of our understanding and apprehension of it.
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What did Douglas Gasking?
1} The creation of the world is the most supreme achievement conceivable.
2} The value of an achievement is measured by its intrinsic quality and the ability of its creator.
3} The greater the limitation of the creator, the more impressive the achievement.
4} The greatest limitation of a creator would be non-existence.
5} Therefore, a world created by a non-existent creator would be greater than one created by an existent creator.
6} An existing God is therefore not the greatest conceivable being, since an even greater being would be one which did not exist.
Conclusion: God does not exist.
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What did Dawkins say about the argument?
Richard Dawkins rejects the ontological argument on the grounds firstly that it is infantile.
