ETS Practice Test #1

Question 1

Characteristics of Parkinson’s disease (bradykinesia, cogwheel rigidity, tremors) are a result of degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the ________ area of the brain.

Answer 1

Substantia nigra

Question 2

Describe an infant’s object concept at 6 months old.

Answer 2

The infant understands objects to be solid bounded entities that take up space and move on continuous paths.

–
How Object Permanence Develops
Piaget suggested that there were six substages that occur during the sensorimotor stage of development

0–1 months: Reflexes – First babies use their reflexes to understand and explore the world. Their awareness of objects is poor, as is their eyesight.
1–4 months: Primary circular reactions – Babies start to notice some objects and movements are enjoyable. They discover their feet, arms and hands.
4–8 months: Secondary circular reactions – These are when babies do something to create a reaction, such as reaching for an object that is partially hidden. However, babies do not yet reach for hidden objects, perhaps suggesting a lack of understanding of object permanence.
8–12 months: Coordination of secondary circular reactions – One of the most important stages for cognitive development. Now the infant is goal-directed. This is when the earliest understanding of object permanence starts. Children can pull objects out from hidden locations.
12–18 months: Tertiary circular reaction – The child starts using trial-and-error to learn and solve new problems. The child can retrieve an object when it is hidden several times, as long as they can see it first.
18–24 months: Invention of new means through mental combination – A full understanding of object permanence occurs at this age. A child can understand when objects are hidden in containers. In Piaget’s theory, this is because children have developed mental representations. They can imagine the object without being able to see it.

Question 3

Explain overshadowing in classical conditioning.

Answer 3

In classical conditioning, a decrease in conditioning with one conditioned stimulus because of the presence of another conditioned stimulus. Usually a stronger stimulus will overshadow a weaker stimulus. —overshadow.

Example: Over many trials a puff of air aimed at Jane’s eyes is paired with a loud noise and a subtle smell. Afterward, it’s very likely that Jane’s conditioned eye blink will be under the control of the loud noise but NOT the subtle smell.

Question 4

Describe the key characteristics of Separation Anxiety Disorder, per the DSM.

Answer 4

• Usually occurring in childhood or adolescence
• Symptoms must be present for at least 6 months in adults versus 4 weeks in children.
• Characterized by developmentally inappropriate, persistent, and excessive anxiety about separation from the home or from major attachment figures.
• Other features may include marked anticipatory anxiety over upcoming separation
• Persistent and excessive worry about harm coming to attachment figures or about major events that might lead to separation from them (e.g., getting lost).

There may also be school refusal, fear of being alone or going to sleep without major attachment figures present, separation-related nightmares, and repeated complaints of physical symptoms (e.g., vomiting, nausea, headaches, stomachaches) associated with anticipated separation.

Question 5

What are Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess known for?

Answer 5

Temperament Theory

• Three general types of temperaments in children: easy, slow-to-warm, and difficult.
• Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess, researchers, found that temperament is influenced by nine temperament traits: activity, regularity, initial reaction, adaptability, intensity, mood, distractibility, persistence-attention span, and sensory threshold.

Question 6

Describe Karen Horney’s theory of neurotic needs

Answer 6

The idea that people cope with stress by moving TOWARD people, AWAY from people, or AGAINST people.

Three Types of Neurotic Needs
- Needs that move people towards others: These neurotic needs cause individuals to seek affirmation and acceptance from others. People with these needs are often described as needy or clingy as they seek out approval and love.

• Needs that move people away from others: These neurotic needs create hostility and antisocial behavior. These individuals are often described as cold, indifferent, and aloof.
• Needs that move people against others: These neurotic needs result in hostility and a need to control other people. These individuals are often described as difficult, domineering, and unkind.

Question 7

Describe Temporal summation vs. Spatial summation

Answer 7

The difference between spatial and temporal summation is the number of presynaptic neurons involved that dispatch signals to the synapses of a postsynaptic neuron.
- Temporal summation only involves a single presynaptic neuron, while spatial summation emerges from multiple presynaptic neurons.

Individual definitions:
- Temporal summation occurs when a single pre-synaptic neuron fires many times in succession, causing the post-synaptic neuron to reach its threshold and fire
- Spatial summation occurs when excitatory potentials from many different pre-synaptic neurons cause the post-synaptic neuron to reach its threshold and fire.

Question 8

Describe the ventral vs. dorsal stream

Answer 8

The idea of a division between a dorsal and a ventral visual stream is one of the most basic principles of visual processing in the brain (Milner and Goodale, 1995). Both streams originate in the primary visual cortex - the ventral stream extends along the ventral surface into the temporal cortex; the dorsal stream continues along the dorsal surface into parietal cortex.

The ventral stream (or “vision-for-perception” pathway) is believed to mainly subserve recognition and discrimination of visual shapes and objects,

The dorsal stream (or “vision-for-action” pathway) has been primarily associated with visually guided reaching and grasping based on the moment-to-moment analysis of the spatial location, shape, and orientation of objects.

Question 9

What is Erik Erikson known for?

Answer 9

Stages of Psychosocial Development.
- Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.

Question 10

Describe Piaget’s Stages of Development (with associated ages and concepts)

Answer 10

• Sensorimotor
• Preoperational
• Concrete Operations
• Formal Operational

Question 11

Describe Freud’s Stages of (personality) development

Answer 11

• Oral
• Anal
• Phallic
• Latency
• Genital

Question 12

Language - surface vs. deep structure

Answer 12

To be studied

Question 13

Research - review types of tests (e.g., test-retest, alternate forms

Answer 13

To be studied

Question 14

Memory - categories of memory and their definitions + examples (e.g., Semantic Memory)

Answer 14

To be studied - add a visual

Question 15

Stages of Sleep

Answer 15

To be studied - add a visual

Question 16

Major psychodynamic theorists

Answer 16

Detail to be added/studied
- Karen Horney (ten neurotic needs)
- Alfred Adler
- Carl Jung
- Sigmund Freud

Question 17

Define Object Relations Theory

Answer 17

• Emphasizes early life relationships

Object Relations Theory is a psychodynamic theory that focuses on the ways in which individuals develop internalized representations, or “objects,” of their relationships with significant others. These objects are mental images or templates that shape how individuals perceive and interact with others in the world. Object Relations Theory suggests that early experiences with primary caregivers are particularly influential in shaping these internalized representations, which can have lasting effects on personality development, emotional regulation, and social relationships.

Question 18

Perception - Vision: review colors of wavelengths

Question 19

Memory - what is Baddeley and Hitch’s theory of working memory?

Answer 19

The original model of Baddeley & Hitch was composed of three main components: the central executive which acts as a supervisory system and controls the flow of information from and to its slave systems: the phonological loop and the visuo-spatial sketchpad. The phonological loop stores verbal content, whereas the visuo-spatial sketchpad caters to visuo-spatial data.

• Performance of two simultaneous tasks requiring the use of two separate perceptual domains (i.e. a visual and a verbal task) is nearly as efficient as performance of the tasks individually. In contrast, when a person tries to carry out two tasks simultaneously that use the same perceptual domain, performance is less efficient than when performing the tasks individually.

Question 20

Language - Define the following: Grammar, Semantics, Phonology, Pragmatics

Answer 20

Related to formal & structural properties of language:
- Grammar: The formal relationships of language
- Semantics: The meaning of language / aspects of language related to meaning
- Phonology: The system of speech sounds in a language or in language generally
Related to functional communication
- Pragmatics: How people use language in context to communicate meaning

Question 21

Language - define grammar and its subdivisions

Answer 21

Grammar - the formal relationships of language
- Morphology: The morphology of a sentence refers to the way in which words are formed and modified to indicate grammatical relationships.
- Syntax: the set of rules that describes how words and phrases in a language are arranged into grammatically correct sentences

Syntax: e.g., in the sentence “The cat chased the mouse”, the word order is subject-verb-object, which is a common syntax in English.

Morphology: e.g., in the sentence “She walks to the store”, the word “walks” is modified to indicate that the subject (she) is singular and in the present tense. This modification is an example of morphology, which deals with the internal structure of words and how they change to convey meaning.

Question 22

Cognitive - review the following: self-serving bias, self-handicapping, pluralistic ignorance, the actor-observer effect, the false consensus effect

Answer 22

To be studied

Question 23

Ethology - review the sign stimulus to fixed action pattern process

Answer 23

To be studied

Question 24

Perception - Vision: review the visual process & neuroanatomy associated

Answer 24

To be studied

Question 25

What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SPN)?

Answer 25

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
a small region of the hypothalamus in the brain, above the optic chiasm, that is the location of the circadian oscillator, which controls circadian rhythms. It receives direct input from the retina. See also biological clock.

Question 26

Research - define a two-tailed test versus a one-tailed test

Answer 26

To be studied

Question 27

Clinical - What are the defining characteristics of the following therapeutic approaches:
- Existential
- Psychoanalytic
- Behavioral
- Cognitive
- Client-centered

Answer 27

To be studied

Question 28

Perception - define an illusory contour

Answer 28

Also called a subjective contour

An edge or border perceived in an image as a result of the inference of the observer. A common form of a Kanizsa figure contains a triangle with sides that consist of subjective contours. Also called illusory contour.

Question 29

Describe Kolhberg’s theory of moral development

Answer 29

the concept that the cognitive processes associated with moral judgment develop through a number of universal variant stages.
According to the theory, there are three main levels
- the preconventional level
- the conventional level
-the postconventional level.

Broadly speaking, the morally developed individual moves from a selfish concern with rewards and punishments, through a reliance on fixed rules and conventional attitudes, to a position of independent principled judgment. See also Heinz dilemma.

Question 30

Language - define morpheme vs phoneme

Answer 30

Morpheme
- n. in linguistic analysis, a unit of MEANING that cannot be analyzed into smaller such units. For example, the word books is composed of two morphemes, book and the suffix -s signifying a plural noun.

Phoneme
- n. in linguistics, a speech SOUND that plays a meaningful role in a language and cannot be analyzed into smaller meaningful sounds, conventionally indicated by slash symbols: /b/. A speech sound is held to be meaningful in a given language if its contrast with other sounds is used to mark distinctions of meaning.
- In English, for example, /p/ and /b/ are phonemes because they distinguish between [pan] and [ban] and other such pairs

Question 31

The transformation of energy into electrical impulses is _____

Answer 31

Transduction

Definition:
- n. the process by which one form of energy is converted into another. The term denotes sensory transduction in particular, the transformation of the energy of a stimulus into a change in the electric potential across the membrane of a receptor cell.
- See olfactory transduction; taste transduction; visual transduction.

Question 32

Development - review the stages of development of a baby

Answer 32

e.g., Gonadal hormones act early in life to determine a rat’s mate selection through effects referred to as organizational

Question 33

Theories of Personality - describe the defining features of the following:
- Psychodynamic
- Humanistic
- Trait
- Social cognitive
- Behavioral

Answer 33

See screenshot.

Question 34

What is prosopagnosia?

Answer 34

prosopagnosia
n. a form of visual agnosia in which the ability to perceive and recognize faces is impaired, whereas the ability to recognize other objects may be relatively unaffected. The term was originally limited to impairment following acute brain damage, but a congenital form of the disorder has since been recognized. Prosopagnosia can be distinguished from prosopamnesia, which is an abnormal difficulty in remembering faces, even though they are perceived normally: The condition may be congenital or acquired.
–
visual agnosia: loss or impairment of the ability to recognize and understand the nature of visual stimuli.

Question 35

During Piaget’s concrete operational stage of development, children learn conservation. What is conservation and what are its components?

Answer 35

conservation
- n. the awareness that physical quantities do not change in amount when they are altered in appearance, such as when water is poured from a wide, short beaker into a thin, tall one. According to Piagetian theory, children become capable of this mental operation in the concrete operational stage.

Piaget came to understand that the ability to conserve depended upon two more fundamental cognitive or thinking skills: Decentration and Reversibility.

reversibility
- n. in Piagetian theory, a mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to the original condition. It is exemplified by the ability to realize that a glass of milk poured into a bottle can be poured back into the glass and remain unchanged.

decentration
- n. in Piagetian theory, the gradual progression of a child away from egocentrism toward a reality shared with others.
- Occurring during the concrete operational stage, decentration includes understanding how others perceive the world, knowing in what ways one’s own perceptions differ, and recognizing that people have motivations and feelings different from one’s own.
- It can also be extended to the ability to consider many aspects of a situation, problem, or object, as reflected, for example, in the child’s grasp of the concept of CONSERVATION. Also called decentering.

Question 36

Define Fluid intelligence vs. Crystallized intelligence

Answer 36

Cattell–Horn theory of intelligence

• a theory proposing that there are two main kinds of intellectual abilities nested under general intelligence:
  – g-c, or CRYSTALLIZED intelligence (or ability), which is the sum of one’s knowledge and is measured by tests of vocabulary, general information, and so forth;
  – and g-f, or FLUID intelligence (or ability), which is the set of mental processes that is used in dealing with relatively novel tasks and is used in the acquisition of g-c.
  —–
  In later versions of the theory, other abilities were added, such as g-v, or visual intelligence (or ability), which is the set of mental processes used in handling visual-spatial tasks (e.g., mentally rotating a geometric figure or visualizing what pieces of paper would look like if folded). [originated by Raymond B. Cattell in the 1940s; subsequently developed by U.S. psychologist John L. Horn (1928–2006) beginning in the 1960s]

Question 37

What are Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner known for?

Answer 37

• Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect .
  – According to this principle, behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
  – Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect – Reinforcement. behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Question 38

Describe the different theories of intelligence

Answer 38

See visual for theories by: Spearman, Thurston, Sternberg, Gardner, Cattell

Question 39

Define experiment study designs: Between-subjects, Matched-Subjects, Within-Subjects

Answer 39

Between-Subjects: Multiple groups that are exposed to different levels of the IV (e.g., Group 1 eats high protein, Group 2 eats low protein)

Matched-Subjects: Similar to Between-Subjects, but subjects are matched then divided into groups to ensure approximate equality between the groups (on whatever the matching variable is)

Within-Subjects: Compare one group of subjects over multiple experiments (e.g., one subject’s performance on test one versus performance on test two)

Question 40

Research - define the “main effect” in a research study

Answer 40

A “main effect” is the effect of one of your independent variables on the dependent variable, ignoring the effects of all other independent variables.

Question 41

Describe the three functional regions of the hypothalamus

Answer 41

Lateral hypothalamus: Hunger center

The lateral hypothalamus (LH) is located on the lateral surface of the hypothalamus and contains several nuclei involved in the regulation of feeding behavior, reward, and motivation. The LH also plays a role in the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, particularly in relation to cardiovascular and respiratory functions.

Ventromedial hypothalamus: Satiety center

The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is located near the base of the hypothalamus and contains several nuclei involved in the regulation of feeding behavior and metabolism. The VMH is also involved in the regulation of sexual behavior, aggression, and thermoregulation.

Anterior hypothalamus: Sexual activity etc.

The anterior hypothalamus (AH) is located at the anterior end of the hypothalamus and contains several nuclei involved in the regulation of temperature, thirst, and sexual behavior. The AH also plays a role in the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, particularly in relation to cardiovascular and respiratory functions.

Question 42

Describe the categories of memory in order

Answer 42

Sensory memory –> Short Term / Working Memory –> Long Term Memory

Sensory: Visual (iconic) + Echoic (auditory; fleeting impressions of sensory stimuli

Short Term: Information that we attend to from sensory memory comes to ST memory; ~20 seconds, without any form of maintenance rehearsal; 7 +/-2 chunks of info stored

Long Term:
- Procedural: Habitual information, no conscious effort (“how to do things” e.g., tie your shoe laces, ride a bike)
- Declarative: Explicit information (“fact memory”)
– Semantic: “encyclopedia” general knowledge
– Episodic: “autobiography” particular events

Question 43

Define social referencing, as relates to babies

Answer 43

Social referencing in babies refers to the process by which infants look to a caregiver or parent for cues on how to respond to a novel or ambiguous situation. When presented with something new or unfamiliar, such as a toy or a person, babies will often look to their caregiver’s facial expressions, vocal cues, and body language for guidance on how to react.

Question 44

Define preattentive processing in perception

Answer 44

The preattentive process is a stage of perceptual processing that occurs before conscious attention is directed towards a particular stimulus. It refers to the automatic and unconscious processing of sensory information that takes place in the brain before attention is consciously focused on a specific aspect of that information.

During the preattentive stage, the brain processes sensory information such as color, shape, size, and orientation without conscious awareness or effort. This allows the brain to quickly and efficiently detect and analyze visual stimuli in the environment, even before attention is directed towards them.

For example, if you look at a picture of a crowded room, your brain will automatically and unconsciously process features such as color, shape, and orientation of objects in the room. This preattentive processing allows you to quickly identify objects of interest, such as a person’s face or a particular item on a shelf, without needing to consciously focus your attention on every individual object in the room.

Question 45

Define cephalocaudal

Answer 45

Cephalocaudal
- adj. from head to tail, as in the long axis of the body. The term typically refers to the maturation of an embryo or infant, wherein the greatest development takes place at the top of the body (i.e., the head) before the lower parts (i.e., the arms, trunk, legs).

Associated concept:
PROXIMODISTAL
- adj. from the central to the peripheral. The term typically is used in the context of maturation to refer to the tendency to acquire motor skills from the center outward, as when children learn to move their heads, trunks, arms, and legs before learning to move their hands and feet.

Question 46

Define Place and Volley theories of audition

Answer 46

Review auditory processes.

Question 47

Describe the Model of Helping (or decision model) developed by Bibb Latane and John Darley

Answer 47

Bibb Latane and John Darley’s model of helping, also known as the “decision model,” suggests that people go through a series of steps in deciding whether or not to offer help in an emergency situation. The model consists of five steps:

1. Notice the event
2. Interpret the event as an emergency
3. Perception of responsibility
4. Knowing how to help
5. Decide to help

Question 48

Review Carl Jung’s major concepts in psychodynamic theory and psychoanalysis

Answer 48

To be studied

e.g., archetypes

Question 49

Describe key concepts associated with Edward Tolman

Answer 49

Edward Tolman was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to the field of learning and behaviorism. He is best known for his work on cognitive maps and latent learning.
** He challenged the behaviorist view of learning

Cognitive Maps: Tolman believed that learning was not simply a matter of stimulus and response, but rather involved the formation of mental representations or cognitive maps that allowed individuals to navigate and understand their environment.

Latent Learning: Tolman’s research on latent learning demonstrated that rats could learn a maze without receiving any reinforcement, as long as they had a cognitive map of the maze.

Question 50

Review Solomon Asch’s findings on conformity

Answer 50

Key findings:
More likely to conform when…
- The group was larger
- The group was unanimous in its incorrect opinion
- When the task was more difficult

Example answer to exam question: Conformity increases as group size increases from two people to four/five people

Question 51

Review normal distribution percentages

Answer 51

Note:
- z-score is the number of SDs a score is from the mean

• 1 SD above mean: 34% (84th ptile)
• 2 SD above mean: 34% + 14% (97th ptile)
• 3 SD above mean: 34% + 14% + 2% (99.74 ptile)
• Beyond 3 SDs above mean is remaining ~.26%

Memorize this ratio
- 34:14:2 (above/below mean %s)

Note:
- 1 SD above/below mean: 68% of scores

Question 52

Review the following: Motion parallax, phi phenomenon, the Ponzo illusion

Answer 52

• Motion parallax is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when we perceive objects in the environment as moving at different speeds or directions based on our own movement. It is a type of depth perception that allows us to perceive the relative distances between objects in the environment.
• The phi phenomenon is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when two or more stationary visual stimuli are presented in rapid succession, creating the illusion of movement. It is often described as the perception of motion where no actual motion exists.
• The Ponzo illusion is a visual illusion that was first described by Italian psychologist Mario Ponzo in 1911. It is a type of size-contrast illusion that involves two lines of equal length that are placed between converging lines that are angled in such a way that they appear to recede into the distance. The line that is placed closer to the converging lines appears longer than the line that is placed farther away, even though both lines are actually the same length.

Question 53

Review mental health medications e.g., benzodiazepines and mechanisms of effect (e.g., benzos bind to GABA receptors in amygdala)

Answer 53

To be studied

Question 54

Review the following psychological schools of thought:
- Structuralism
- Functionalism
- Gestalt
- Evolutionary
- Humanistic

Answer 54

Structuralism (late 19th century): Breaks down mental experience into basic elements, uses introspection, studies sensation, perception, and emotion. Founded by Wilhelm Wundt.

Functionalism (late 19th century): Studies purpose/function of mental processes and behaviors, studies whole organism in environment, adaptive functions of behavior, individual differences. Founded by William James.

Gestalt (early 20th century): Emphasizes holistic nature of perception, importance of context in shaping experiences, perception is more than sum of its parts. Founded by Max Wertheimer.

Humanistic (mid-20th century): Emphasizes subjective experience and personal growth, individuals have free will and capacity for growth, unique experiences of each individual. Founded by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Evolutionary (late 20th century): Studies how behaviors and mental processes have evolved over time, adaptive functions of behavior, universal aspects of human behavior. Founded by multiple researchers, including David Buss and Leda Cosmides.

Question 55

How was Francis Galton involved in the nature-nurture question?

Answer 55

In the late 19th century, Galton conducted a series of studies comparing the similarities and differences between identical twins and fraternal twins in various traits, such as intelligence, height, and weight. His studies helped to establish the importance of genetic factors in determining these traits and helped to pave the way for later twin studies that continue to be used to investigate the nature vs. nurture debate.

The first researcher to use a twin study methodology in attempting to resolve the nature vs. nurture controversy was Francis Galton, a British psychologist and statistician who lived from 1822 to 1911. Galton was a cousin of Charles Darwin and was influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Question 56

What is normative influence?

Answer 56

Conformity motivated by a fear of social rejection

Normative influence refers to the influence that other people have on our behavior in order to conform to the social norms or expectations of a group. It is a form of social influence that is driven by a desire to fit in with a group and avoid rejection or disapproval.

Question 57

Review the types of test consistency and validity e.g., Predictive, Content etc.

Answer 57

To be studied

Question 58

Define some of the aspects of egocentrism

Answer 58

Egocentrism is a cognitive bias in which an individual views the world primarily from their own perspective and has difficulty understanding or appreciating the perspectives of others.

Centration: This refers to the tendency to focus on a single aspect of a situation or problem and ignore other relevant information. For example, a young child might focus on the size of a piece of cake rather than the number of pieces available, leading them to believe that a larger slice is always better.

Animism: This refers to the belief that inanimate objects have feelings, thoughts, and intentions. For example, a child might believe that a stuffed animal is sad because it has been left alone.

Imaginary audience: This refers to the belief that one is constantly being watched and judged by others. This can lead to self-consciousness, anxiety, and a desire to conform to perceived social norms.

Personal fable: This refers to the belief that one is unique and invulnerable, and that normal rules and consequences do not apply to oneself. This can lead to risky behaviors and a lack of consideration for the potential consequences of one’s actions.

Difficulty with perspective-taking: This refers to the difficulty of understanding and appreciating the perspectives of others. This can lead to misunderstandings, conflict, and a lack of empathy.

Question 59

Define the major theoretical schools of psychology

Answer 59

Structuralism: This school of thought emerged in the late 19th century and focused on breaking down mental processes into their component parts in order to understand how they work. Key figures in structuralism include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.

a. Introspection: a method of self-observation in which participants report their thoughts and feelings in response to stimuli.

Functionalism: This school of thought emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century and focused on understanding the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior. Key figures in functionalism include William James and John Dewey.

a. Stream of consciousness: a concept used to describe the continuous and changing flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensations that make up our experience of the world.

Behaviorism: This school of thought emerged in the early 20th century and focused on studying observable behavior rather than internal mental processes. Key figures in behaviorism include Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner, and John Watson.

a. Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

b. Operant conditioning: a type of learning in which the consequences of behavior determine the likelihood that it will be repeated in the future.

Gestalt psychology: This school of thought emerged in the early 20th century and focused on understanding how people perceive and experience the world as a whole, rather than breaking it down into parts. Key figures in gestalt psychology include Max Wertheimer and Wolfgang Kohler.

a. Gestalt principles: a set of principles that describe how people tend to organize visual information into meaningful wholes, rather than isolated parts.

Psychoanalysis: This school of thought emerged in the early 20th century and focused on understanding the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior. Key figures in psychoanalysis include Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung.

a. Unconscious mind: a part of the mind that contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not currently in conscious awareness, but can still influence behavior.

b. Defense mechanisms: unconscious strategies that people use to protect themselves from anxiety and to maintain a sense of self-esteem.

Humanistic psychology: This school of thought emerged in the mid-20th century and focused on understanding the unique qualities of human experience, such as creativity, free will, and personal growth. Key figures in humanistic psychology include Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

a. Self-actualization: the process of fulfilling one’s potential and becoming the best version of oneself.

b. Client-centered therapy: a type of therapy developed by Carl Rogers that emphasizes the importance of empathy, acceptance, and unconditional positive regard in the therapeutic relationship.

Cognitive psychology: This school of thought emerged in the mid-20th century and focused on understanding mental processes such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving. Key figures in cognitive psychology include Ulric Neisser and George Miller.

a. Information processing model: a model that describes mental processes as involving the input, storage, and retrieval of information.

b. Cognitive-behavioral therapy: a type of therapy that focuses on changing maladaptive thoughts and behaviors by replacing them with more adaptive ones.

Evolutionary psychology: This school of thought emerged in the late 20th century and focuses on understanding how evolutionary processes have shaped human behavior and mental processes. Key figures in evolutionary psychology include David Buss and Leda Cosmides.

Question 60

Describe baby reflexes

Answer 60

Babinski reflex: upward movement of the big toe and fanning of other toes in response to foot stimulation.

Moro reflex: extension of limbs and opening of hands in response to sudden noise or movement.

Rooting reflex: turning of head and opening of mouth in response to touch near the mouth or cheek.

Grasping reflex: automatic grasping of objects placed in hand by newborns.

Palmar reflex: closing of fingers around an object placed in hand, similar to grasping reflex.

Tonic neck reflex: turning of head to one side and extension of arm and leg on that side, while flexing the limbs on the opposite side.

Question 61

Define incidence vs prevalence

Answer 61

To be studied

Question 62

Define the Premack Principle

Answer 62

The Premack Principle is a psychological principle that suggests that a higher-probability behavior can be used to reinforce a lower-probability behavior.
- In other words, an individual is more likely to perform a less preferred behavior if it is immediately followed by a more preferred behavior.

This principle is often used in behavior modification and can be useful in creating positive changes in behavior. The Premack Principle is named after psychologist David Premack, who first proposed the idea in the 1960s.

Question 63

Define the method of limits

Answer 63

The Method of Limits is a psychophysical testing method that is used to measure the threshold of perception for a given stimulus.

This method involves presenting a stimulus at different intensities, and the participant is asked to indicate when they first perceive the stimulus (the threshold). zThe intensity of the stimulus is then adjusted, and the participant is again asked to indicate when they perceive it.

Question 64

What is long-term potentiation?

Answer 64

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a process that occurs in the brain and is believed to be a fundamental mechanism underlying learning and memory.

It refers to the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons that results from repeated and persistent stimulation. In LTP, the communication between neurons becomes more efficient, which allows for more effective transmission of information across neural circuits.

• it is believed to play a crucial role in many cognitive processes, including learning, memory, and perception.

Question 65

Review the types of glial cells and their purpose

Answer 65

Astrocytes: Provide structural support to neurons, regulate chemical environment around them, help with synapse formation and maintenance, and play roles in blood flow regulation and tissue repair.

Oligodendrocytes: Produce and maintain myelin sheath around axons to speed up nerve impulse transmission.

Microglia: Remove damaged/dying neurons and debris from the brain, and play a role in the inflammatory response.

Ependymal cells: Line ventricles and central canal of spinal cord, produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid.

Schwann cells: Produce myelin sheath around peripheral nerve fibers to speed up nerve impulse transmission.

Question 66

Define the difference between single and multifactor studies

Answer 66

In a single-factor study, only one independent variable is manipulated or varied to determine its effect on the dependent variable.
– For example, in a study examining the effect of a new medication on symptoms of a particular illness, the medication is the only independent variable.

In a multifactor study, two or more independent variables are manipulated to determine their individual and combined effects on the dependent variable.
– For example, in a study examining the effects of both the type of therapy and the frequency of therapy on depression, two independent variables (type and frequency of therapy) are manipulated to determine their effects on the dependent variable (depression).

Question 67

Define the difference in within-subjects and between-subjects design

Answer 67

In a within-subjects design, each participant is exposed to all levels of the independent variable.

– For example, if the independent variable is caffeine consumption, each participant would be given different levels of caffeine in different conditions, with their performance on the dependent variable (such as reaction time) measured for each level. In this design, participants serve as their own controls, reducing individual differences and increasing the power of the study.

In a between-subjects design, different participants are assigned to different levels of the independent variable.

– For example, if the independent variable is caffeine consumption, one group of participants would receive high levels of caffeine while another group receives low levels of caffeine.

Question 68

When does it make sense to use a within-subjects vs between-subjects study design?

Answer 68

Within-subjects designs are useful when individual differences could affect the results

Between-subjects designs are useful when individual differences are less likely to be a confounding variable and when the study is focused on comparing differences between groups.

Question 69

List some of the variables in statistical analysis related to psychological research

Answer 69

Predictor variable (Independent variable): A variable that is used to predict or explain the values of another variable (the dependent variable).

Mediating variable: A variable that explains how or why there is a relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable.

Spurious variable: A variable that appears to be related to the dependent variable, but the relationship is actually due to a third variable.

Extraneous variable: A variable that may affect the relationship between the predictor variable and the dependent variable.

Dependent variable: The variable that is being measured or observed in the study, and it is typically the outcome variable or the variable that is affected by the independent variable.

Alpha variable: The probability of making a Type I error in hypothesis testing.

Question 70

What are the two Types of errors in hypothesis testing?

Answer 70

Type I error: This is a false positive, which occurs when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true.

– Example: A pharmaceutical company claims that a new drug cures a certain disease. The null hypothesis is that the drug has no effect, but the company rejects this null hypothesis based on a small sample size and concludes that the drug is effective. Later, a larger study with better controls shows that the drug has no effect, and the initial claim was a Type I error.

Type II error: This is a false negative, which occurs when the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false. In other words, the researcher concludes that there is no significant difference or relationship between variables when there is actually a difference or relationship.

– Example: A study aims to determine whether a new educational program improves students’ test scores. The null hypothesis is that there is no difference in test scores between students who participate in the program and those who do not. The study finds no significant difference in test scores between the two groups and fails to reject the null hypothesis. However, in reality, the program does improve test scores, and the initial conclusion was a Type II error.

Question 71

Define null hypothesis

Answer 71

symbol: H0) a statement that a study will find no meaningful differences between the groups or conditions under investigation, such that there is no relationship among the variables of interest and that any variation in observed data is the result of chance or random processes.

The NH is contrasted with the alternative hypothesis, which is a prediction of a significant finding (e.g., a significant difference between sample means, a correlation that is significantly different from zero). Statistical procedures are applied to research data in an attempt to disprove or reject the NH at a predetermined significance level.