Evaluating Claims

Question 1

Define

Deductive reasoning

Answer 1

A generalized statement that is tested against real-world observations

Question 2

Define

Inductive reasoning

Answer 2

Using empirical observations to construct broad generalizations

Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of the observations on which they are based

Question 3

Define

Theory

Answer 3

A well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena.

Question 4

Define

Hypothesis

Answer 4

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct

It is often worded as an if-then statement

The hypothesis is extremely important because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real world.

Question 5

List

The four steps in the scientific method

Answer 5

1. Theory: use a theory to form a hypothesis
2. Hypothesis: design a study to test the hypothesis
3. Research: perform the research
4. Observation: create or modify the theory

A true scientific method is capable of being falsifiable

Question 6

Define

Falsifiable

Answer 6

Capable of being shown to be incorrect

Question 7

List

The four research methods in psychology

Answer 7

1. Case studies
2. Naturalistic observation
3. Surveys
4. Longitudinal and cross-sectional research

Question 8

Explain

Case study

Answer 8

a.k.a. clinical study
when scientists study one or a few individuals for observational research.

Question 9

What are the benefits to case/clinical studies?

Answer 9

1. Gain a tremendous amount of insight to cases
2. The richness of information is unmatched by any other single research method

Question 10

What is the drawback to case/clinical studies?

Answer 10

It is difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as a whole.

Question 11

Define:

Generalizing

Answer 11

the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society.

Question 12

Explain

Naturalistic observation

Answer 12

when scientists observe the behavior in its natural context.

naturalistic observation is not limited to research involving humans.

Question 13

What is the major benefit to naturalistic observation?

Answer 13

The information provided by these studies is invaluable in understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with one another.

Question 14

What are the drawbacks to naturalistic observation?

Answer 14

1. They are often difficult to set up and control.
2. observer bias

Question 15

Explain

Surveys

Answer 15

lists of questions to be answered by research participants.

Question 16

What are the benefits of surveys?

Answer 16

1. they can collect information from a larger sample of people
2. data we collect from the survey can be generalized to the larger population with more certainty than the information collected through a case study

Question 17

What are the drawbacks of surveys?

Answer 17

1. a greater number of people involved creates the inability to collect the same depth of information on each person that would be collected in a case study
2. People don’t always give accurate responses. *They may lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes them look good.

Question 18

Define

Longitudinal research

Answer 18

a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time.

Question 19

Define:

Cross-sectional research

Answer 19

a research design in which a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time.

While cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also limited by differences that exist between the different cohorts.

Question 20

Explain

Correlation

Answer 20

there is a relationship between two or more variables but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect.

When two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable changes, so does the other.

Question 21

Define

Correlation coefficient

Answer 21

a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables.

Question 22

What letter represents the correlation coefficient?

Answer 22

R

Question 23

Define

confounding variable

Answer 23

a variable that is not included in an experiment, yet affects the relationship between the two variables in an experiment.

Question 24

Explain

Scatterplots

Answer 24

a graphical view of the strength and direction of correlations.

The stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are to a straight line.

Question 25

# Explain Positive correlation

Answer 25

When two events frequently occur together

Question 26

# Explain Negative correlation

Answer 26

When it is likely that one event will not occur when the other event does occur ## Footnote For example: when it snows, it is likely not going to be sunny

Question 27

# Define Illusory correlations

Answer 27

When people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists. ## Footnote also known as false correlations

Question 28

# Define Confirmation bias

Answer 28

The tendency to seek out and prefer information that supports our preexisting beliefs. ## Footnote As a result, we tend to ignore any information that contradicts those beliefs.

Question 29

# Define Experimental manipulation

Answer 29

The treatment or variable being tested in the experimental group

Question 30

# Define Operational definition

Answer 30

a description of how we will measure our variables ## Footnote it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a researcher measures in a particular experiment.

Question 31

# Define Experimenter bias

Answer 31

the possibility that a researcher’s expectations might skew the results of the study

Question 32

# Define Single-blind study

Answer 32

one of the groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in (experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group

Question 33

# Define Double-blind study

Answer 33

both the researchers and participants are unaware as to which group they are in; they are blind to group assignments. ## Footnote This is done to control the expectations for both the experimenter and participant.

Question 34

# Define: The placebo effect

Answer 34

When people's expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience in a given situation. ## Footnote In other words, simply expecting something to happen can actually make it happen.

Question 35

# Explain: Independent variable

Answer 35

the variable that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study ## Footnote the only important difference between the experimental and control groups.

Question 36

# Define: Variable

Answer 36

something that: 1. can change 2. has variations 3. is not true to type

Question 37

# Explain: Dependent variable

Answer 37

what the researcher measures to see how much effect the independent variable had ## Footnote We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.

Question 38

# Explain: Participants

Answer 38

the subjects of psychological research; individuals who are involved in psychological research and actively participate in the process.

Question 39

# Explain: Random sample

Answer 39

a subset of a larger population in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. ## Footnote Random samples are preferred because we can be reasonably sure that the participating individuals are representative of the larger population if the sample is large enough.

Question 40

# Explain: Random assignment

Answer 40

The process in which participants from the sample group are assigned into the control group or experimental group; all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.

Question 41

# Explain: What are the five components of informed consent?

Answer 41

1. a written description of what participants can expect during the experiment 2. inclusion of potential risks and implications of the research 3. informs that participation and involvement is completely voluntary 4. participation can be discontinued without penalty at any time 5. guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain completely confidential. ## Footnote * sometimes deception is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research question from affecting the results of the study.

Question 42

# Explain Ethical deception

Answer 42

Purposely misleading experiment participants in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the point where the deception could be considered harmful.

Question 43

When (ethical) deception is used in the study, what must happen?

Answer 43

The participants must receive a full debrief that includes: 1. complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment 2. how the data collected will be used 3. the reasons why deception was necessary, and 4. information about how to obtain additional information about the study.

Question 44

# Define: Statistical Analysis

Answer 44

a branch of mathematics focused on the collection and analysis of data involving the science of mind and behavior.

Question 45

# Explain: Peer-reviewed

Answer 45

reviewed by an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved in research themselves

Question 46

# Explain: What feedback do peer reviewers give?

Answer 46

Peer reviewers look for: 1. a strong rationale for the research being described, 2. a clear description of how the research was conducted, and 3. evidence that the research was conducted in an ethical manner. They also look for 4. flaws in the study's design, methods, and statistical analyses 5. conclusions drawn by the authors seem reasonable given the observations made during the research 6. how valuable the research is in advancing the discipline’s knowledge. ## Footnote Peer review helps prevent unnecessary duplication of research findings in the scientific literature and, to some extent, ensures that each research article provides new information. Ultimately, the journal editor will compile all of the peer reviewer feedback and determine whether the article will be published in its current state (a rare occurrence), published with revisions, or not accepted for publication. Peer review provides some degree of quality control for psychological research.

Question 47

# Define: Reliability

Answer 47

the ability to consistently produce a given result.

Question 48

# Define: Validity

Answer 48

the extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure.

Question 49

# List: The five characteristics of a fact

Answer 49

1. remains the same 2. objective (cannot be influenced by what someone thinks or believes) 2. can be confirmed or measured with calculations or data 3. it can be observed/see it happen 4. it can be verified by primary sources (research, photographs, artifacts)

Question 50

# List The three characteristics of an opinion

Answer 50

(definition: a statement of belief or judgment) 1. can change 2. not universally shared (debatable) 3. evaluates something or someone

Question 51

# List Three types of opinion statements

Answer 51

1. moralistic 2. comparative 3. predictive

Question 52

# Define: Pseudoscience

Answer 52

Methods that are used (or altered) to confirm beliefs and can be used to prove anything

Question 53

What is the difference between science and pseudoscience

Answer 53

Science disconfirms whereas pseudoscience confirms. ## Footnote If the theory cannot be tested, it is automatically invalid

Question 54

# List: The criteria to determine if a theory is valid

Answer 54

1. testable 2. refutable 3. falsifiable

Question 55

What was Popper's Theory of Knowledge

Answer 55

Knowledge is based on probability and contingency. Meaning that our beliefs are shaped on probability based on data; however, our beliefs should be willing to change once data changes. Knowledge is not certainty. ## Footnote ***You should only believe what you have reasons for.

Question 56

How do you evaluate a claim's credibility?

Answer 56

You assess the credibility of the source

Question 57

How do you assess the credibility of the source?

Answer 57

By asking: 1. **Does the source have any reason to lie?** (Do they get any benefit from exaggerating the truth or misleading the audience?) 2. **Is there any way that the source is biased?** (Although bias is not seen as lying, it is seen as a psychological commitment to erroneous or distorted perspective taking) 3. **Can the source’s reliability be trusted?** (Does the source have lack of access to information? – Impediment) (Does the source have any conditions that alter the validity to their information? - Impairment) 4. **Can the source’s expertise be trusted?** (Does the source possess the education for the subject matter about which they are making claims?) (Does the source possess the credentialized, applied skills for the subject matter about which they are making claims?) (Does the source possess the practical experience--direct, verifiable experience working with a sufficient sample set and collecting measurable, falsifiable data from them--for the subject matter about which they are making claims?