evolution

Question 1

how did Darwin’s theory of evolution start

Answer 1

• galapagos islands
• 1835
• mockingbirds look different between islands

Question 2

what is functionalism - Darwin

Answer 2

• characteristics of an organism has a useful function - all for survival
• to understand the basis of various behaviours, we must first understand what these behaviours accomplish

Question 3

what is the mechanism of natural selection - Darwin

Answer 3

• differences are seen within species and inherited by offspring
• favouraable characteristics that have help in survival and reproduction, get passed on to offspring
• over generations these characteristics become more dominant
• mutations could occur
• drives adaptive radiation

Question 4

what is adaptive radiation

Answer 4

• single species rapidly evolves into multiple new species to match survival
• little competition and diverse resources
• example - Darwin’s finches - beak shapes to food source

Question 5

brief history of human evolution

Answer 5

• first hominids appeared in africa
• first hominid to leave africa around 1.7 million years ago
• late to development

Question 6

existing relatives

Answer 6

• chimpanzezes, gorillas and orangutans
• little differences in DNA

Question 7

human useful functions and need for complex brain

Answer 7

bipedalism - mobility, energy efficiency and adaptability
- opposable thumbs - agile hands for tool use
- colour vision - differentiate fruits from leaves, fruit decay
- linguistic abilities - sharing information, propagation of species

Question 8

what did herculano-houzel 2007 find about brain evolution

Answer 8

• brain weight to number of neurons, found primates to have most neurons
• changes in neocortex size compared to other non-human animals

Question 9

how are large brains achieved? how are neurons coded for useful functions and cognition

Answer 9

neoteny

Question 10

what is neoteny

Answer 10

• slowing of maturation, allowing for time for growth, important for large brain and complexity
• not all neurons are coded at birth, allowing for learning based on environment

Question 11

what is the human brain weight for a neonatal

Answer 11

350g

Question 12

what is the adult human brain weight

Answer 12

1400g

Question 13

why study non-human species

Answer 13

• common ancestory
• comparative studies

Question 14

what did maren et al 1977 find about animal models

Answer 14

• hippocampal lesions in rats
• impaired conditioning to contextual cues
• amnesia in humans with hippocampal damage
• rat studies tell us which neuronal systems are key

Question 15

what did clayton 1988 find about comparative studies

Answer 15

• unique source of evidence for the role of hippocampus in learning and memory
• within birds and mammals - hippocampal volume is enlarged in food storing species
• hippocampus can change in size in response to experience

Question 16

what is game theory

Answer 16

von neumann and morgenstern
- mathematical model of strategic decisions
- analysis of outcomes based on their own decisions and other players decisions
- no control of others decisions
maynard smith and price
- applied in understanding evolution strategies
- evolutionary stable strategies and price equation

Question 17

hawk-dove game

Answer 17

• hawk meet hawk - fight for resource
• hawk meets dove - hawk dominates and takes resource
• dove meets hawk - hawk dominates
• dove meets dove - both are passive and share resource

Question 18

what is evolutionary stable strategy

Answer 18

• once adopted by most of he population, cannot be invaded by alternative strategy. best strategy for survival
• two conditions;
• strategy should do better with itself than any new competing strategy if it tried to invade
• strategy should have at least comparable pay off than any other strategy

Question 19

dove game and ESS

Answer 19

hawk strategy;
- hawk vs hawk - fight and injury
- hawk vs dove - hawk wins
dove strategy;
- dove vs dove - peaceful share
- dove vs hawk - hawk wins
- mixed strategy is needed

Question 20

what is the prisoner’s dilemma

Answer 20

• 2 prisoners arrested for same crime
• interrogated separately and offered same choices
• if both stay silent both get 1 year
• if once confess while other stays silent betrayer is free, silent gets 5 years
• if both confess they each get 3 years

Question 21

what is the prisoner’s dilemma paradox

Answer 21

• best strat for mutual benefit is both stay silent
• best strategy for each prisoner individually is confess and implicate other prisoner
• without knowing the other person’s strat the best strat is to confess and implicate

Question 22

what is axelrod and hamilton’s tit for tat strategy

Answer 22

• biological interactions - assumption is that the same two individuals will meet more than once
• best strat for mutual benefit - staying silent
• cooperation evolves when tit for tat strategy is employed
• if in round 1, prisoner 1 confesses, than round 2, prisoner 2 confesses
• tested using computer simulation

Question 23

what is altruism

Answer 23

behaviour at a cost to oneself but benefit to others
- contrary to natural selection
- survival of the fittest
- those with higher fitness - have more offspring - more frequency

Question 24

altruism towards relatives

Answer 24

• inclusive fitness - includes both direct fitness and indirect fitness
• hamilton’s rule - if genetic relatedness and benefit to recipient is greater than cost - altruism will still happen
• price’s equation - mathematically explains how natural selection is connected to inclusive fitness
  e.g. meerkats on guard - cost to self but benefitting the group

Question 25

why help strangers

Answer 25

- reciprocal altruism - group selection

Question 26

what is reciprocal altruism

Answer 26

- benefits will be reciprocated in a similar situation - price equation - past cooperation predicts future fitness

Question 27

what is group selection

Answer 27

- more cooperation - helps dominate selfish groups e.g. humans giving to charity