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Evolutionary Biology > EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF PLANTS > Flashcards

EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF PLANTS Flashcards

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1
Q

The emergence of photosynthetic organisms, especially algae, marks a crucial
turning point in Earth’s history, significantly altering the atmosphere and establishing
the foundation for the evolution of complex living forms.

It all started with an organism that caused a revolution - the _______________, also known as blue-green algae, which arose approximately 3,000 million years ago and began to oxygenate the atmosphere.

A

cyanobacteria

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2
Q

The ___________________________ happened between 2.4 and 2.1 billion years ago and was one of the most important changes in the makeup of Earth’s atmosphere. The Earth’s atmosphere was mostly anoxic (without oxygen) before this event. The appearance of cyanobacteria, which can do oxygenic photosynthesis, which uses water to give off electrons and gives off oxygen as a
result, changed this in a big way.

A

Great Oxygenation Event (GOE)

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3
Q

_________________________ are among the primordial eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms and are regarded as the progenitors of contemporary terrestrial plants. Their evolution commenced approximately 1.6 to 1.0 billion
years ago during the Proterozoic Era.

A

Green algae (Chlorophyta)

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4
Q

__________________ are a subgroup of green algae and are considered the closest relatives of land plants due to their shared characteristics:
● Cellulose-rich Cell Walls: Provide structural support, similar to land plants.
● Chlorophyll A and B: Similar pigments used in photosynthesis.
● Starch Storage: Like land plants, charophytes store excess carbohydrates
as starch.
● Plasmodesmata: Channels between cells that allow communication and
nutrient transport.
● Sporopollenin: A tough polymer that protects spores and zygotes from drying out, a crucial adaptation for eventual terrestrial life.

A

Charophytes

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5
Q

Before moving to land, early plants developed various adaptations to thrive in aquatic environments. __________ plants (hydrophytes) evolved strategies to survive in water

A

Aquatic

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6
Q

_________________________: Specialized tissue that helps with buoyancy and oxygen transport in submerged plants.

A

Aerenchyma (Air Spaces)

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7
Q

The first life forms on Earth were ___________, and it is believed that life began in the oceans around 3.5 billion years ago. The earliest plants, or plant-like organisms, were ________ that lived in water, where they could easily absorb nutrients, stay hydrated.

A

aquatic
algae

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8
Q
A
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9
Q

What is the significance of cyanobacteria in Earth’s history?

A

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, emerged approximately 3,000 million years ago and began to oxygenate the atmosphere.

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10
Q

What was the Great Oxygenation Event (GOE)?

A

The GOE occurred between 2.4 and 2.1 billion years ago, marking a significant change in Earth’s atmosphere from anoxic to oxygen-rich due to cyanobacteria.

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11
Q

What are the two principal lineages of green algae?

A
  • Chlorophytes
  • Charophytes
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12
Q

What is endosymbiosis in the context of green algae?

A

Endosymbiosis refers to an early eukaryotic cell assimilating a cyanobacterium, which evolved into a chloroplast.

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13
Q

What are charophytes and why are they significant?

A

Charophytes are a subgroup of green algae considered the closest relatives of land plants due to shared characteristics.

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14
Q

What are some adaptations of charophytes that support their relation to land plants?

A
  • Cellulose-rich cell walls
  • Chlorophyll A and B
  • Starch storage
  • Plasmodesmata
  • Sporopollenin
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15
Q

What structural adaptations did aquatic plants develop?

A
  • Thin or absent cuticle
  • Aerenchyma (air spaces)
  • Flexible stems and leaves
  • Reduced or absent roots
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16
Q

What are some reproductive adaptations of aquatic plants?

A
  • Water-assisted reproduction
  • Fragmentation and budding
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17
Q

What challenges did plants face when transitioning from water to land?

A
  • Preventing water loss
  • Supporting structure without buoyancy
  • Reproducing without water
  • Efficient nutrient absorption
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18
Q

What adaptations evolved in land plants to overcome challenges of terrestrial life?

A
  • Roots
  • Vascular tissue (xylem and phloem)
  • Waxy cuticles
  • Stomata
  • Seeds
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19
Q

What is the function of the cuticle in land plants?

A

The cuticle is a waxy, water-resistant coating that reduces water loss and protects against pathogens.

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20
Q

What is the role of stomata in land plants?

A

Stomata control water loss and gas exchange, allowing plants to balance carbon dioxide absorption with water conservation.

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21
Q

What is xylem and its function in vascular plants?

A

Xylem is a tissue that transports water and minerals from roots to the rest of the plant.

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22
Q

What is the significance of lignin in vascular plants?

A

Lignin provides rigidity and support, allowing plants to grow taller and develop complex structures.

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23
Q

What are bryophytes and their characteristics?

A

Bryophytes are the earliest land plants, lacking vascular tissues and depending on water for reproduction.

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24
Q

What is the significance of bryophytes in plant evolution?

A

Bryophytes played a crucial role in soil formation and paved the way for more complex land plants.

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25
What are the main groups of vascular plants?
* Rhyniophytes * Lycophytes * Ferns and Pteridophytes * Gymnosperms * Angiosperms
26
What is the difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms?
Gymnosperms are cone-bearing plants, while angiosperms are flowering plants.
27
What adaptations did early vascular plants develop?
* True roots, stems, and leaves * A dominant diploid sporophyte stage
28
What are xerophytic adaptations?
Xerophytic adaptations are structural features that help plants survive in dry environments.
29
What role do mycorrhizal fungi play in plant adaptation?
Mycorrhizal fungi assist plants in absorbing water and nutrients from the soil in exchange for sugars.
30
Fill in the blank: The first vascular plants appeared around ______ million years ago.
420
31
True or False: Bryophytes have a dominant diploid sporophyte stage.
False
32
What role did structural adaptations play in the success of vascular plants?
Structural adaptations such as lignin, roots, and leaves helped vascular plants survive and thrive on land.
33
What are roots and their function in plants?
Roots are organs that absorb water and necessary nutrients from the ground for survival and development.
34
When did the earliest evidence of roots appear in plant evolution?
The earliest evidence of roots appears from clubmosses (Drepanophycus spinaeformis) dating back to 419-408 million years ago.
35
What is the significance of lignin in vascular plants?
Lignin provides structural stability, waterproofs tissues, and protects plants from herbivores and parasites.
36
Fill in the blank: The first plants developed leaves that possess the structural framework necessary to produce a _______.
[laminated leaf]
37
During which geological period did megaphylls become widespread?
Megaphylls became widespread during the Devonian period.
38
What are gymnosperms and how are they characterized?
Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants that do not produce flowers but instead produce seeds on cones.
39
List the four divisions of gymnosperms.
* Coniferophyta * Cycadophyta * Gnetophyta * Ginkgophyta
40
What is the defining characteristic of angiosperms?
Angiosperms produce flowers and their seeds are enclosed within a fruit.
41
How many families and species of angiosperms are there approximately?
There are approximately 416 families and 352,000 species of angiosperms.
42
True or False: Fungi are autotrophic organisms that produce their own food through photosynthesis.
False
43
What is the primary mode of nutrition for fungi?
Fungi are heterotrophic and obtain nutrients by breaking down organic matter.
44
What is mycorrhizae?
Mycorrhizae is a mutualistic association between fungi and plant roots that facilitates nutrient exchange.
45
What role do fungi play as decomposers in ecosystems?
Fungi break down dead organic material, recycling nutrients back into the environment.
46
Fill in the blank: Fungi likely evolved from _______ protozoans.
[amoeboid]
47
What are the three hypotheses regarding how fungi colonized land?
* The Green Hypothesis * The Brown Hypothesis * The White Hypothesis
48
What is the significance of hyphal growth in fungi?
Hyphal growth allows fungi to penetrate solid organic material and secrete enzymes to break down nutrients.
49
What are the major groups of fungi that diversified around 400-300 million years ago?
* Chytridiomycota * Zygomycota * Glomeromycota * Ascomycota * Basidiomycota
50
What types of relationships do fungi form with algae?
Fungi form mutualistic relationships with algae to create lichens.
51
What is a significant plant disease caused by fungi?
Dutch elm disease, caused by Ophiostoma ulmi.
52
What are the two types of mycorrhizae that evolved after arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi?
* Ectomycorrhizae * Ericoid mycorrhizae
53
True or False: All fungi are harmful to plants.
False
54
What adaptation allows fungi to survive in extreme environments?
Fungi can form structures that resist desiccation and survive in harsh conditions.
55
What structures do fungi form to survive subzero conditions in Antarctica?
Black yeast-like structures ## Footnote These structures allow fungi to endure extreme cold temperatures.
56
What are plant pathogens that belong to the Basidiomycota group?
Rusts and smuts ## Footnote These fungi attack crops like wheat.
57
What disease does Batrachochytrium (Chytridiomycota) cause?
Amphibian chytridiomycosis ## Footnote This disease has significant impacts on amphibian populations.
58
Name three human pathogens caused by fungi.
Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus ## Footnote These fungi are responsible for serious infections in humans.
59
What evolutionary adaptation did certain fungi undergo around 200-100 million years ago?
Unicellular lifestyle, giving rise to yeasts ## Footnote Yeasts adapted to environments rich in sugars.
60
What role did fungi play in human agriculture over the last 10,000 years?
Fungal fermentation and antibiotic production ## Footnote Examples include the use of fungi to ferment foods and the discovery of penicillin.
61
How did fungi contribute to early land plants' nutrient absorption?
Formed mycorrhizal associations ## Footnote This relationship improved the ability of plants to absorb water and nutrients.
62
What is mycotrophism?
Dependency of plant evolution on fungal partnerships ## Footnote Some researchers propose that plants may not have colonized land successfully without fungi.
63
Fill in the blank: Fungi transferred the _____ gene to wheatgrass, improving its resistance to Fusarium head blight.
Fhb7 ## Footnote This gene originated from fungal endophytes.
64
What role do fungal genes play in plant disease resistance?
Contribute to defense against microbial pathogens ## Footnote These genes may have originated from ancient fungal symbionts.
65
What is the role of fungi in soil formation?
Breaking down rocks and organic material ## Footnote Lichens, formed by fungi, were among the first life forms on land.
66
What are some major factors influencing plant evolution today?
Natural selection, genetic mutations, hybridization, human-induced impacts ## Footnote These factors drive adaptations in plant structure and physiology.
67
How do plants adapt to climate change?
Developing deeper roots, antifreeze proteins, altering dormancy cycles ## Footnote These adaptations help plants withstand extreme temperatures.
68
True or False: Dandelions have adapted well to urban environments.
True ## Footnote They thrive by adapting their root systems and reproductive strategies.
69
What is one emerging trend in plant evolution due to climate change?
Rapid evolution in response to rising temperatures ## Footnote This includes earlier blooming times for cherry blossoms.
70
What is CRISPR-Cas9 used for in plant evolution?
Enabling precise genetic modifications ## Footnote This technique enhances yield, quality, and disease resistance.
71
What significant event occurred around 3,000 million years ago?
Cyanobacteria emerged and began to oxygenate the atmosphere ## Footnote This initiated the Great Oxygenation Event.
72
What happened during the Late Devonian extinction?
Many primitive vascular plants declined, allowing seed-bearing plants to rise ## Footnote Gymnosperms became the dominant plant group during the Mesozoic Era.
73
Fill in the blank: The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction led to the rapid diversification of _____ plants.
Angiosperms ## Footnote This event opened ecological niches for flowering plants.
74
What is the dominant group of plants in today’s terrestrial ecosystems?
Angiosperms ## Footnote Angiosperms are flowering plants that produce seeds enclosed within a fruit, contributing significantly to biodiversity.
75
What are the two major groups of green algae?
Chlorophytes and Charophytes ## Footnote These groups are important in understanding the evolutionary transition to land plants.
76
What is the purpose of sporopollenin in charophytes?
To protect spores and zygotes from drying out ## Footnote Sporopollenin is a durable polymer that provides protection against desiccation.
77
Which of the following fungal adaptations was crucial for their transition to land?
Evolution of hyphal growth and extracellular digestion ## Footnote These adaptations allowed fungi to effectively absorb nutrients from their environment.
78
What is the primary role of mycorrhizal fungi in their symbiotic relationship with plants?
Help plants absorb water and nutrients from the soil ## Footnote Mycorrhizal fungi form beneficial associations with plant roots, enhancing nutrient uptake.
79
The following are the key characteristics of bryophytes, except:
Abundance in vascular tissues ## Footnote Bryophytes lack true vascular tissues, which differentiates them from vascular plants.
80
Why were early vascular plants like lycophytes and ferns important in Earth’s history?
They contributed to the formation of coal deposits during the Carboniferous period ## Footnote This period was crucial for the development of fossil fuels.
81
What is the specialized tissue in structural adaptation of aquatic plants that helps them float and transport oxygen?
Aerenchyma ## Footnote Aerenchyma is a tissue that provides buoyancy and facilitates gas exchange in aquatic environments.
82
How did the life cycle of vascular plants differ from that of bryophytes?
Vascular plants have a dominant sporophyte stage, while bryophytes have a dominant gametophyte stage ## Footnote This distinction is key to understanding plant reproductive strategies.
83
What key adaptation allowed vascular plants to grow larger and dominate land ecosystems?
The development of vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) ## Footnote Vascular tissues are vital for transporting water, nutrients, and sugars.
84
The development of the structural adaptation in plant’s roots sprung from rhizoid which mainly functions to:
Absorb water and minerals from the soil in plants ## Footnote Rhizoids anchor plants and facilitate nutrient uptake.
85
Which of the following statements best explains a key evolutionary advantage of angiosperms over gymnosperms?
Angiosperms produce enclosed seeds within a fruit, which aids in dispersal and protection, while gymnosperms produce naked seeds that are more vulnerable to environmental conditions ## Footnote This encapsulation provides a significant adaptive advantage.
86
Which of the following adaptations allows gymnosperms to thrive in cold and dry environments more effectively than angiosperms?
Their needle-like leaves have a thick cuticle and sunken stomata, reducing water loss and preventing desiccation ## Footnote These features are crucial for survival in harsh climates.
87
What evidence best supports the hypothesis that cyanobacteria were responsible for the Great Oxygenation Event?
The presence of banded iron formations (BIFs) that indicate large-scale oxidation of iron in ancient oceans ## Footnote This evidence suggests significant changes in Earth's atmosphere due to photosynthetic activity.
88
Which of the following scenarios best explains how mass extinction events contributed to the modern dominance of angiosperms in terrestrial ecosystems?
The decline of gymnosperms after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction opened ecological niches that allowed rapidly adapting angiosperms to diversify and spread ## Footnote Mass extinctions often reshape ecosystems and allow for new species to thrive.

Evolutionary Biology (12 decks)

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