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Exam 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Homeostasis

A

The body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

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2
Q

Positive and Negative feedback loop

A

negative - A change is sensed and mechanisms to reverse the change are activated – dynamic equilibrium

Positive - Change leads to greater change in the same direction – self-amplifying cycle

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3
Q

endocrine system

A

Collection of endocrine glands scattered throughout the body

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into bloodstream

Hormones travel through the bloodstream to bind to receptors on target cells

When a hormone binds to target cells receptor, it causes the cell to respond in a specific way

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4
Q

effects hormones have on target cells

A

Changes in cell membrane permeability and/or membrane potential

Synthesis of proteins or regulatory molecules

Enzyme activation or deactivation

Regulation of secretory activity

Stimulation of mitosis (cell division)

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5
Q

functions of endocrine system

A

Maintain homeostasis

Storage and utilization of energy (carbohydrates, proteins and fats)

Regulation of growth and reproduction

Control body responses to external stimuli (particularly stress)

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6
Q

steroid hormones

A

Synthesis – from cholesterol

Storage – produced as needed

Solubility – lipid soluble

Cell membrane permeability – can pass through the cell membrane (simple diffusion)

Location of receptors – inside the cell

Examples – oestrogen, testosterone

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7
Q

amino acid-based hormones

A

Synthesis – from amino acids

Storage – stored in vesicles

Solubility – water soluble

Cell membrane permeability – cannot pass through the cell membrane

Location of receptors – on the cell membrane

Examples – Antidiuretic hormone, Prolactin

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8
Q

mechanism of steroid hormone actions

A
  1. Diffuse through the plasma membrane
  2. Binds with receptor in cell cytoplasm
  3. Steroid-receptor complex moves inside the nucleus
  4. Induces gene expression and protein synthesis
  5. New protein alters cell function
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9
Q

mechanism of amino acid-based hormones

A
  1. Hormone binds with receptor on plasma membrane
  2. Hormone-receptor complex generates second messenger inside the cell cytoplasm
  3. Second messenger triggers intracellular chemical to amplify signal (cascade)
  4. Results in desired cell response
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10
Q

hypothalamus and pituitary gland

A

Hypothalamus: master endocrine gland

Hypothalamus connects to the pituitary gland via the pituitary gland (infundibulum)

Hypothalamus links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland

Most hormone secretion by the pituitary gland is controlled by hormonal or electrical signals from the hypothalamus

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11
Q

key endocrine glands

A 
Anterior pituitary gland 
Posterior pituitary gland 
Pineal gland 
Thyroid gland 
Parathyroid gland 
Adrenal cortex 
Adrenal medulla 
Pancreas 
Ovaries 
Testes
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12
Q

anterior pituitary gland hormones

A

Thyroid stimulating hormone

Growth hormone

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

Follicle stimulating hormone

Luteinizing hormone

Prolactin

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13
Q

thyroid stimulating hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates the cells of the thyroid gland leading to increase production of thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

Regulation: Hormonal – produced and released in response to release of thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus

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14
Q

growth hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: promotes growth of bone, cartilage and soft tissue

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of growth-hormone releasing hormone and growth-hormone-inhibiting hormone from the hypothalamus

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15
Q

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates the production and release of cortisol, androgens and aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

Regulation: hormonal –secreted in response to the secretion of the corticotropin-release hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus

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16
Q

follicle stimulating hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates sperm production in males and maturation of ovarian follicles in females

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of gonadotrophin release hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus

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17
Q

leuteinizing hormone

A

release from anterior pituitary

Effect: ovulation in females, and testosterone production in males

Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of gonadotrophin release hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus

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18
Q

prolactin hormone

A

Released from: anterior pituitary

Effect: stimulates milk production in the breasts

Regulation: hormonal – secretion is increased by the release of prolactin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus in response to the baby suckling at the breast

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19
Q

posterior pituitary gland hormones

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone

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20
Q

oxytocin hormone

A

Released from: posterior pituitary

Effect: increases uterine contractions during childbirth and is responsible for the ‘let down’ response during breastfeeding

Regulation: neural. Sensory receptors in the cervix and nipple sensory signals to the hypothalamus that results in the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary gland

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21
Q

antidiuretic hormone

A

Released from: posterior pituitary

Effect: increases reabsorption of water in nephrons (functional unit of the kidney)

Regulation: humoral – stimulated by increased plasma osmolality and decreased extracellular fluid volume

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22
Q

pineal gland hormones

A

melatonin

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23
Q

melatonin hormone

A

Released from: Pineal gland

Effect: secretion peaks at night. High levels induce drowsiness

Regulation: neural – suppressed by bright light

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24
Q

thyroid gland hormones

A

Thyroid hormones – Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)

Calcitonin

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25
Thyroxine (T4) Triiodothyronine (T3)
Released from: thyroid gland Effect: increases metabolic rate, cell growth and production of body heat Regulation: hormonal – regulated by the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary gland
26
calcitonin hormone
Released from: thyroid gland Effect: decreases blood calcium levels by increasing calcium excretion, promotes storage of calcium in bone, inhibits calcium absorption by the intestines Regulation: humoral – controlled directly by blood calcium levels
27
parathyroid hormone
Released from: parathyroid gland Effect: increases blood calcium levels by increasing calcium absorption, and stimulating osteoclast activity and therefore reabsorption of calcium from the bones Regulation: Humoral – controlled directly by blood calcium levels
28
adrenal gland (adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex)
Adrenal cortex (outside) makes up 85% of the gland, Adrenal Medulla (inside) makes up other 15% Adrenal cortex (outside) Cortisol Aldosterone Sex hormones Adrenal Medulla (inside) Adrenaline Noradrenaline
29
cortisol
Released from: adrenal cortex Effect: increase protein breakdown, glucose formation, depresses the immune response Regulation: stimulated by the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone from the anterior pituitary gland
30
aldosterone
Released from: adrenal cortex Effect: reduces excretion of sodium. Increases the excretion of potassium. Increases water reabsorption and blood volume Regulation: hormonal – primary control mechanism is the production of angiotensin II in response to reduced blood pressure
31
sex hormones
Released from: adrenal cortex Effect: small amounts of weak androgen. In women, then promote libido (sex drive) and are converted into oestrogens (feminizing sex steroids) by other body tissues Regulation: not fully understood. But the main hormone that stimulates its secretion is ACTH. Therefore, hormonal regulation
32
adrenaline and noradrenaline
Released from: adrenal medulla Effect: fight or flight response Regulation: neural – innovated by the sympathetic nervous system
33
pancreas
Endocrine part consists of clusters of cells called pancreatic islets Alpha cells secrete glucagon Beta cells secrete insulin
34
insulin
Released from: beta cells of the pancreas Effect: reduces blood glucose levels. Facilitates the uptake of glucose into muscle and fat. Stimulates the liver to store glucose as glycogen Regulation: Humoral – increased blood glucose levels
35
glucagon
Released from: Alpha cells of the pancreas Effect: increases blood glucose levels. It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stored in the liver Regulation: humoral – decreased blood glucose levels
36
gonads
are the organs that produce gametes – sperm in males and oocytes in females
37
ovaries
Paired oval bodies located in the pelvic cavity Hormones: Oestrogen Progesterone
38
testes
Pair structures located outside the abdominal cavity, with in the scrotum Hormones: Testosterone
39
Oestrogen and progesterone
Released from: ovaries Effect: regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare the mammary glands for lactation, stimulates the development and maintenance of sexual characteristics Regulation: hormonal – stimulated by FSH and LH
40
testosterone
Released from: testes Effect: regulates the production of sperm and stimulates the development and maintenance of sexual characteristics Regulation: hormonal – stimulated by LH
41
GI Tract
Mouth Tongue Palate Pharynx Oesophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine
42
accessory organs
Salivary glands Liver Gall bladder Pancreas
43
six basic digestive processes
Ingestion: taking food into the mouth Secretion: release of water, acid, buffers, and enzymes into the lumen of the GI tract Mixing and propulsion: churning and pushing food through the GI tract Digestion: mechanical and chemical breakdown of food Absorption: passage of digested products from the GI tract into the blood and lymph Defecation: elimination of feces from the GI tract
44
mechanical and chemical digestion
Mouth Ingestion Mechanical digestion by teeth Chemical digestion by salivary amylase Stomach Mechanical digestion by churning Chemical digestion of protein by digestive enzymes and HCI Liver and pancreas Secretion of digestive enzymes and bile into duodenum Small intestine Mechanical digestion via segmentation Chemical digestion via digestive enzymes and bile Major site of absorption Large intestine Bacteria breakdown remaining CHO and proteins Absorption of water Formation of feces Rectum and anus Elimination of feces via defecation
45
layers of GI tract
Mucosa – inner layer. Lines the lumen and is in contact with digestive products Submucosa – thick layer of connective tissue. Contains blood vessels and nerves that stimulate gastric glands Muscularis – inner layer of circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle. responsible for motility Serosa – outer layer. Secrete serous fluid which lubricates and reduces friction
46
salivary glands
Parotid gland Sublingual Submandibular
47
functions of saliva
Dissolves food (99.5% water) Lubricates food for swallowing (mucus) Chemical digestion: salivary amylase – digestion of carbohydrates. Lingual lipase - digestion of lipids
48
pharynx
The oropharynx and the laryngopharynx are passages for food and respiratory gases The epiglottis closes off the entrance to the larynx during swallowing, precents food entering the larynx
49
oesophagus
Muscular tube connection the pharynx to the stomach (approx. 25cm) Moves bolus from pharynx to stomach via peristalsis The upper oesophageal sphincter regulates the movement of substances into the oesophagus Lower oesophageal (cardiac) sphincter regulates movement of substances from the oesophagus to the stomach
50
peristalsis
Circular muscle behind the food contract Circular muscle ahead of the food relax Longitudinal muscle contracts as the food enters that region, reducing the distance the food needs to travel
51
swallowing (deglutition)
The voluntary (oral) phase – voluntary, movement of the bolus from the oral cavity into the oropharynx The pharyngeal phase – involuntary, movement of the bolus from the oropharynx into the oesophagus The oesophageal phase – involuntary, movement of the bolus through the oesophagus and into the stomach
52
arrector pilli
Small muscles located in the dermis that cause goosebumps
53
epithelium layers
Simple: one layer of cells, used for absorption and filtration Stratified: more than one layer of cells, used for protection Pseudostratified – pseudo (false), stratified (more than one); appears multi-layered but is only made of one layer of cells where all cells connect to the basement membrane, but cell height varies
54
epithelium shape
Squamous: flat cells, few organelles therefore minimal activity level Cuboidal: equal in height and width, moderate number of organelles therefore moderate activity level Columnar: taller than width, multiple organelles therefore high activity level
55
pancreas
Delivers amylase, trypsin and lipase into duodenum to assist absorption. Bicarbonate – nullify chyme
56
small intestine
Major site of digestion and absorption of nutrients and water in GIT
57
large intestine
formation and storage of feces
58
goblet cells
secrete mucous
59
gallbladder
Stores, concentrates and delivers bile into the duodenum
60
absorptive cells
Absorb nutrients
61
villi
Finger-like projections of mucosa that increase surface area for absorption and digestion
62
enteroendocrine cells
Secrete secretin and cholecystokinin
63
microvilli
Microscopic, membrane-covered projections that increase surface area for absorption and digestion
64
mucous neck cells
secrete mucous
65
liver
Produces bile (bile salts) necessary for the emulsification and absorption of lipids
66
parietal cells
Secrete intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid
67
chief cells
Secretes pepsinogen and gastric lipase
68
desmosomes
Desmosomes are localized patches that hold two cells tightly together. They are common in epithelia (e.g., the skin). Desmosomes are attached to intermediate filaments of keratin in the cytoplasm
69
plasma membrane function
The plasma membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.
70
cytosol function
It is involved in signal transduction between the cell membrane and the nucleus and organelles
71
smooth endoplasmic reticulum funtion
It synthesizes lipids, phospholipids as in plasma membranes, and steroids.
72
ribosomes function
the site of protein synthesis in the cell
73
golgi apparatus function
proteins received from the ER are further processed and sorted for transport to their eventual destinations: lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or secretion
74
lysosomes function
rid cells of waste products
75
nucleus function
controls and regulates activities of the cell
76
mitochondria function
generates ATP - power house of the cell

SAP (3 decks)

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