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Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

4 structures of urinary system

A

Kidney x 2

Ureter x 2

Urinary bladder x 1

Urethra

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2
Q

kidney layers

A

Renal fascia – dense irregular connective tissue

Fat capsule/adipose capsule – helps ancho kidney in place and acts as a cushion

Renal capsule

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3
Q

Nephroptosis

A

inferior displacement of the kidney, drops down from where it should be sitting. Primary reason it occurs is due to a person having less fat in their body

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4
Q

regions of the kidney

A

Outer layer – renal cortex

Inner layer – renal medulla

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5
Q

structures of the kidney

A

Renal pyramids

Renal papilla

Renal columns

Minor calyx

Major calyx

Renal pelvis

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6
Q

nephrons

A

Renal corpuscle

Renal tubules

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7
Q

renal corpuscle

A

Glomerulus – cluster of capillaries

Bowman’s capsule – doubled wall membrane that surrounds glomerulus

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8
Q

renal tubules

A

Proximal convoluted tubule

Loop of Henle

Distal convoluted tubule

Collecting duct

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9
Q

proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

A

Arises from bowman’s capsule

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Microvilli facing lumen

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10
Q

Loop of Henle

A

Sits mostly in medulla

Descending = water permeable – simple epithelia

Ascending = water impermeable – lots of active transport

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11
Q

distal convoluted tubule

A

Begins as tubule enters cortex

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Principal and intercalated cells

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12
Q

collecting duct

A

Several nephrons empty into a single collecting duct

Extend from renal cortex to renal medulla

Principal and intercalated cells

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13
Q

2 different types of nephrons

A

Cortical nephron

Location: mainly in renal cortex
Capillaries: peritubular capillaries
Function: primarily involved in producing dilute urine

Juxtamedullary nephron

Location: loop of Henle dips a lot deeper in the renal medulla
Capillaries: peritubular capillaries, vasa recta capillaries
Function: primarily produce concentrated urine

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14
Q

Layers of glomerular filtration membrane

A

Fenestrated endothelium

Basement membrane

Podocyte

Filtration slits

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15
Q

pathway of blood through the kidney

A

Renal artery -> interlobar artery -> arcuate artery -> cortical radiate artery -> afferent arteriole -> glomerulus -> efferent arteriole -> vasa recta or peritubular capillaries -> cortical radiate vein -> arcuate vein -> interlobar vein -> renal vein

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16
Q

major functions of the urinary system

A

Routine – production and excretion of urine

Protective – eliminate toxins, alter blood pressure

Balancing – regulate pH and electrolytes

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17
Q

what do kidneys filter

A

The kidneys filter blood

The waste products filtered out of the blood are excreted as urine

If no blood is filtered, no urine is produced

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18
Q

urine formation

A

Glomerular filtration

Tubular reabsorption

Tubular secretion

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19
Q

tubular reabsorption

A

The process of reclaiming water and solutes from the filtrate and returning them to the blood

Filtrate -> blood

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20
Q

tubular secretion

A

The process of secreting excess or waste substances from the blood into filtrate in the tubules

Blood -> filtrate

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21
Q

GBHP
CHP
BCOP

A

Glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure (GBHP) = 55mHg – blood pressure in glomerular capillaries. Promotes filtration

Capsular hydrostatic pressure (CHP) = 15 mmHg – hydrostatic pressure against the filtration membrane from fluid in capsular space. Opposes filtration

Blood colloid osmotic pressure (BCOP) = 30 mmHg – induced by the presence of proteins (I.e., albumin) in blood plasma which draw water into capillaries. Opposes filtration

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22
Q

Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)

A

= GBHP – CHP – BCOP

= 55 mmHg – 15 mmHg – 30 mmHg

= 10 mmHg

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23
Q

if GFR is to high
if GFR is to low

A

If GFR is too high = decreased H20 and solute reabsorption

Increase urine output, dehydration, electrolyte depletion

If GFR is too low = increase H20 and solute reabsorption

Reabsorb wastes that should be eliminated in urine

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24
Q

myogenic mechanism

A

The mechanism by which arteries and arterioles react to an increase or decrease in blood pressure to keep the blood flow within the blood vessel constant

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25
sympathetic stimulation
The kidneys are supplied by sympathetic fibers that release norepinephrine Norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole With increase sympathetic stimulation the afferent arteriole constricts Constriction of the afferent arteriole also acts to redirect blood to other tissue
26
hormones affecting kidney function
Angiotensin II Aldosterone Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) Parathyroid hormone
27
angiotensin II
Active hormone in renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, stimulated by low blood pressure Angiotensin II acts in a variety of ways Systemic vasoconstriction Binds to hypothalamus to stimulate thirst Acts on adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
28
aldosterone
Released from adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin II, ACTH and high blood potassium concentration Stimulates principal cells in the collecting ducts to reabsorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete more K+ The consequence of reabsorbing more Na+ and Cl- is that more water is reabsorbed
29
antidiuretic hormone
Vasopressin Released from posterior pituitary gland in response to increased blood osmolarity Increased permeability of principals cells in DCT and collecting duct to water Stimulates insertion of aquaporins into membrane
30
atrial natriuretic peptide
Released in response to an increase in blood volume Inhibits reabsorption of Na+ and water Suppresses secretion of aldosterone and ADH Increases Na+ secretion and urine output
31
parathyroid hormone
Released from the parathyroid gland in response to low blood Ca+ levels Stimulates opening of calcium channels in membranes of cells in early DCT Results in increased calcium reabsorption
32
aging and urinary system
Kidneys shrink in size, and there is a decrease in the number of functioning glomeruli Muscles in bladder become weaker, stretch receptors become less sensitive Sensation of thirst reduced
33
ureter
Mucosal layer Smooth muscle Fibrous connective tissue
34
bladder - hollow, extendable and muscular organ
Mucosal layer Smooth muscle, longitudinal, circular and longitudinal. Internal sphincter and external sphincter Fibrous connective tissue – peritoneum, holds bladder in place
35
urethra
Mucosal layer – protects tissue Muscularis layer – propels urine
36
micturition reflex
Afferent impulses from stretch receptors to pons Pontine micturition center activated Parasympathetic efferents stimulate detrusor muscle, opening internal urethral sphincter Sympathetic efferents inhibited Somatic efferents inhibited; external; urethral sphincter relaxes
37
urine
1-2 liters produced per day Affected by fluid intake, blood pressure, osmolarity, diet, body temperature, diuretics, mental state and general health 95% water, 5% solutes Solutes include electrolytes, wastes derived from cellular metabolism, and exogenous substances such as drugs Urine is typically protein free
38
urinalysis
An analysis of the volume and physical, chemical and microscopic properties of urine If disease alters metabolism or kidney function, traces of substances not normally present may appear in urine Protein Glucose Red blood cells Microbes
39
scrotum
Loose bag of skin located outside the abdominal cavity Divided into two sacs via scrotal septum Each sac contains one teste 2 – 3 degrees Celsius lower than core body temperature Temperature is regulated by Dartos muscle – smooth muscle Cremaster muscle - skeletal muscle Pampiniform plexus – network of small veins
40
Sperm survival is 2-3 degrees Celsius lower than core body temperature
Scrotum (and testes) located outside of the pelvic cacity Dartos and cremaster contract when its cold Cremaster muscle moves testes closer to the body Dartos muscle wrinkles scrotal skin Exposure to warm these reverses these actions Pampiniform plexus – heat exchange vessels
41
testes
Paired oval glands located in the scrotum Location of spermatogenesis -> sperm production Produce male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone) Ducts of testis Seminiferous tubules -> site of sperm production Epididymis -> site of sperm maturation Ductus deferens -> carry sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
42
spermatogenesis
Begins at puberty 50-200 million sperm produced per day Occurs in the seminiferous tubules Lined with sperm-forming cells called spermatogenic cells Sertoli cells located between developing sperm -> nurture and control the developing sperm Leydig cells located in the spaces between the tubules -> synthesis and secrete testosterone
43
sperm
Produced in seminiferous tubules and matures in the epididymis Adaptations for fertilization Elongated tail (flagellum) for movement Body contains mitochondria for energy The head is covered in an acrosomal cap that contains enzymes to assist with the penetration of the egg Genetic material contained within the head
44
ductus of the male reproductive system
Epididymis -> site of sperm maturation Ductus deferens -> carry sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct Ejaculatory ducts -> carry sperm from ductus deferens to into the urethra Urethra (three parts) -> carry sperm from ejaculatory ducts to outside (terminal duct)
45
Sperm plus the secretions provided by the accessory sex glands
The volume of typical ejaculation is 2.5 - 5 mL 50-150 million sperm per milliliter Accessory sex glands secrete the liquid portion Seminal vesicles Prostate Bulbourethral glands
46
seminal vesicle (paired)
Alkaline -> combat acidic environment in vagina Fructose -> energy source Clotting protein -> coagulation after ejaculation
47
prostate
Citric acid -> energy source Zinc -> sperm function and motility Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) -> liquefy semen in the ejaculate
48
bulbourethral gland
Alkaline mucus (pre-ejaculate) -> neutralizes urethra, lubricates urethra and end of penis
49
passageway for the ejaculation of semen and excretion of urine
Root of the penis is the attached portion (proximal) Body of the penis (erectile tissue) - corpus cavernosa -> dorsal, corpus spongiosum penis -> surrounds urethra Glands penis – distal end of corpus spongiosum, opening of urethra (external urethral orifice)
50
ovaries
Produce oocytes that develop into a mature ova (egg) 4-5 million primordial oocytes in utero 0.5 million by puberty 500 used Produce hormones Oestrogen -> stimulate the growth of the egg follicle Progestogen -> thickening the endometrial lining Inhibin -> inhibit the secretion of FSH Relaxin -> relaxes the ligaments in the pelvis, softens and widens the cervix
51
oogenesis
Formation of gametes (oocytes) in the ovaries
52
uterine tubes
Extend laterally from the uterus Funnel-shaped at the ovarian end Smooth muscle -> peristalsis Ciliated simple columnar cells Site of fertilization
53
fimbriae
Finger-link projections at the end of the uterine tubes Movements produce local currents Sweep ovulated oocyte into tubes
54
uterus
Site of implantation of fertilized ovum Hollow, thic walled, muscular organ Body -> major portion Uterine cavity -> interior of the body Fundus -> rounded superior portion Cervix -> narrow neck; projects and opens into vagina
55
uterine wall
Perimetrium -> outer layer Myometrium -> middle layer Smooth muscle Contracts during childbirth Endometrium -> inner layer Stratum functionalis (shed during menstruation) Stratum basalis (permanent layer and gives rise to new stratum functionalis)
56
endometriosis
Growth of endometrial-like tissue outside the uterine cavity Affects approximately 1 in 10 women of reproductive age Symptoms – pain, heavy bleeding, bladder and bowel problems, bloating, infertility Treatment – pain management, hormonal contraception, surgery
57
vagina
Thin-walled tube 8-10cm in length Located between bladder and rectum PH 3.8 - 4.2 (inhibits bacteria growth)
58
two cycles of the female reproductive cycle
Ovarian cycle -> events that occur in the ovaries (oogenesis) The uterine cycle -> prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized ovum
59
hormones released in female reproductive cycle
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release of FSH and LH Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) -> follicular growth Luteinizing hormone (LH) -> ovulation Oestrogen -> growth of endometrium Progestogen -> growth and maintenance of the endometrium
60
ovarian cycle phases
Days 1 – 14: follicular phase FSH stimulates growth of follicles Mature follicle releases oestrogen Day 14: ovulation (LH) Mature follicle ruptures Oocytes released from the ovary Day 14 – 28: luteal phase Corpus luteum secreting progesterone Maintains endometrium
61
uterine cycle
Days 1 – 5: menses Decreased progesterone Stratum functionalis shed (bleeding) Days 5 – 14: proliferative Increased oestrogen Building of stratum functionalis Day 14 – 28: secretory Increased progesterone (corpus luteum) Increased blood flow to the endometrium Thickens and maintains endometrium
62
fertilisation and implantation
Involves the union of sperm and egg Sperm swim through the female cervix and uterine cavity to the fallopian tubes Most sperm die, never reaching the oocyte Fertilization usually occurs in a uterine tube Implantation occurs days later in the uterus
63
sperm entry (fertilisation)
Capacitation – biochemical changes which occur post ejaculation to improve sperm motility Acrosome reaction – the release of hydrolytic enzymes which softens the zone pellucida (jelly coat) Cortical reaction – hardening of the jelly coat post fertilization to prevent potential polyspermy
64
preventing menstruation
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) secreted by the blastocyst and placenta HCG stops the corpus luteum from degrading Corpus luteum continues to produce oestrogen and progesterone Oestrogen and progesterone maintain the endometrium Placenta takes over the production ~8 weeks until birth
65
placenta
Temporary organ of pregnancy Meeting point foetal circulation and maternal circulation Facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and the foetus
66
two parts of placenta
Foetal portion Maternal portion
67
functions of placenta
Exchange of gases, nutrients and waste Protective barrier from most microorganisms Storage of nutrients Produces hormones needed to sustain the pregnancy
68
Changes in cardiovascular system during pregancy
Increased cardiac output Increased blood volume Vasodilation
69
changes in urinary system during pregnancy
Increased GFR Increased urine output Increased risk of urinary tract infections
70
changes in GI system during pregnancy
Increased appetite Pressure on stomach may cause heartburn Decreased GI motility can cause constipation Nausea
71
changes in respiratory system during pregnancy
Increased tidal volume Increased O2 consumption Diaphragm displaced upwards – decreased space for lung expansion
72
changes in skin during pregnancy
Increased pigmentation around eyes and cheeks Stretchmarks on breasts and abdomen
73
changes in reproductive system during pregnancy
Increased blood flow to vagina and vulva Changes to vaginal microbiota
74
stages of labour and delivery
Stage of dilation (6 – 12 hours) - onset of labor to the complete dilation of the cervix (10cm) the cervix relaxes, causing it to dilate and thin out Stage of expulsion (10 min- several hours) - from complete cervical dilation to delivery of the baby. Uterine contractions increase in strength and the infant is delivered Placental stage (5 – 3- min) - after delivery until the placenta or “afterbirth” is expelled by powerful uterine. The contractions also constrict blood vessels that were torn during delivery, thereby reducing the likelihood of hemorrhage. The placenta is expelled

SAP (3 decks)

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