Exam 1

Question 1

Implicit Cognition

Answer 1

Involuntary, uncontrollable, and (at times) unconscious. Governed by habit.

Question 2

Explicit Cognition

Answer 2

Our conscious evaluation of a particular target object. Voluntary & effortful.

Question 3

implicit association test

Answer 3

Measures the automatic association one has between two concepts

Question 4

Heuristic

Answer 4

A rule of thumb or “mental shortcut” used to make a judgment. Usually not aware we are using them. Can guide decision-making.

Question 5

Availability heuristic

Answer 5

Tendency to judge the likelihood of events by availability of memory

Question 6

Moral reasoning (Haidt, 2000)

Answer 6

Moral judgments are often the product of quick/automatic judgments, which then give rise to slow, conscious moral reasoning

Question 7

Automatic cognition

Answer 7

Thinking outside of your ‘conscious’ awareness

Question 8

Unconscious behavioral guidance systems

Answer 8

Environmental/Contextual features => Evaluation of others & objects or motivational states or perceptual system => Behavioral responses

Question 9

Automaticity

Answer 9

The influence that external stimuli and events in one’s immediate environment has on automatic cognition (often without one’s knowledge or awareness)

Question 10

Priming

Answer 10

The activation of concepts or mental representations in our minds via unobtrusive methods. Can be unconscious (subliminal) or conscious (types of social media you consume).

Question 11

Demographic composition & implicit associations (Knowles & Peng, 2005)

Answer 11

Had Ps from predominantly white areas & some from diverse areas (all white themselves). Measured implicit associations between self and ‘white’ identity. Those from diverse areas had stronger ‘white’ identity association.

=> Demographic comp of a place can shape automatic associations

Question 12

Group membership & implicit associations (Xiao & Van Bavel, 2019)

Answer 12

Assigned people to in-group or out-group. Measured their implicit evaluations of each group. Participants showed implicit preference for their own groups (outside of their awareness).

When framed as a ‘cooperative’ task, implicit preferences for own group disappeared.

=> People can have implicit preferences for their in-group, but context also shapes those implicit preferences.

Question 13

Worldview threatening & affirming info (Collins et al., 2014)

Answer 13

Participants were liberal or conservative. Given the opportunity to select information. Were most likely to engage with worldview-affirming information & avoid worldview-threatening information.

=> We tend to avoid difficult info

Question 14

Motivated cognition

Answer 14

People motivated to arrive to a particular conclusion often attempt to seek out info that supports their desired beliefs (often able to provide reasonable justification)

Question 15

Motivated reasoning & the evaluation of evidence (Lord, Ross, & Lepper, 1979)

Answer 15

IVs: Initial death penalty attitude; Conclusion of research article they read (pro- or anti-)
DVs: Evaluation of evidence (good vs bad); Measured death penalty attitude after
Results: Only convinced by science if it supported their initial view. Showed an increased (or polarization) in their initial death penalty attitudes.

Question 16

Cultural cognition theory (Kahan & Braman, 2006)

Answer 16

Tendency of individuals to form beliefs about society that reflect & reinforce their cultural worldview or those of the groups they belong to.

Question 17

Attachment

Answer 17

Process of being emotionally attached to others

Question 18

Secure attachment

Answer 18

Comfortable getting close & depending on others

Question 19

Avoidant attachment

Answer 19

Uncomfortable getting close to & depending on others

Question 20

Anxious-Ambivalent attachment

Answer 20

Strong desire to get close to others, but strong fear of abandonment/rejection

Question 21

Link between attachment style & caregiving (Jones, Cassidy, & Shaver, 2015)

Answer 21

Anxious attachment => Intrusive & controlling caregiving
Avoidant attachment => Cold, unsupportive, & insensitive caregiving

Question 22

ACES & Self-concept (Wong et al., 2019)

Answer 22

Both # of & types of ACES associated with mental health, physical health, & identity clarity

Greater ACES => greater identity uncertainty

Question 23

Complex ‘invisible’ traumas

Answer 23

scapegoating, parentification (child is own parent & parent to parents), emotionally unavailable parents, enmeshment (limited independence due to parents not separating from child at all), competition (jealous or threatened by child’s successes, competence, or beauty)

Question 24

contingencies of self-worth

Answer 24

specific domains in which people evaluate their self-worth (ex: appearance, approval of others, academics)

things happening in those domains that matter (relative to baseline) can affect person’s feelings

Question 25

Implicit theory of the nature of human attributes (Dweck & Molden, 2005)

Answer 25

Entity theorists (fixed mindset): Attributes are fixed, concrete, internal entities (dispositional attributions; more rigid in judgments of self & others) Incremental theorists (growth mindset): Human attributes are dynamic qualities that can be changed or developed (situational attributions; less rigid in judgments of self & others)

Question 26

narrative identity

Answer 26

an individual's internalized, evolving, & integrated story of the self

Question 27

engaging in story editing

Answer 27

Editing one's narrative identity in beneficial ways Self-defeating cognitive cycles Reinterpreting past

Question 28

Self-concept

Answer 28

A collection of self-representations one has of onself

Question 29

personal identity

Answer 29

aspects of one's self-concept unique to the individual person

Question 30

relational identity

Answer 30

aspects of one's self-concept rooted in one's roles vis-a-vie other people (ex: sibling, child)

Question 31

working self-concept

Answer 31

aspects of self-concept brought to mind by the situations or by personal needs

Question 32

social identity

Answer 32

aspects of one's self-concept connected to group memberships or social categories

Question 33

Three notes about identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1979)

Answer 33

Definition is dynamic (no one definition) Motivational (Because 'we' do this; Aspirational) Relevant identity shifts by situation

Question 34

Psychology of class & SES

Answer 34

Middle & upper class individuals are more likely to think in individualistic ways while working class are more likely to think in interdependent ways.

Question 35

Symbolic inheritance

Answer 35

Received ideas & understanding about people & society (ex: European/American idea that wants & preferences should be openly expressed)

Question 36

Behavioral inheritance

Answer 36

Routines or institutionalized family practices (ex: Co-sleeping arrangements, physical punishments like spanking)

Question 37

Meaning-Making (Kegan)

Answer 37

Basic desire to make meaning of events. Meaning is created between the event & a person's reaction to it.

Question 38

shared reality theory

Answer 38

people are motivated to achieve mutual understanding with specific others to: -Establish & maintain interpersonal relationships -Perceive themselves & their environments as stable

Question 39

Self-affirmation theory (Steele, 1988)

Answer 39

The overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of self-integrity & adequacy

Question 40

Psychological methods to protect self & maintain self-esteem

Answer 40

-Self-serving bias -False consensus -False uniqueness -Self-handicapping -Unrealistic optimism -Self-presentation

Question 41

Self-serving bias

Answer 41

Tendency to perceive oneself favorably (ex: high grade on exam = you're smart | low grade on exam = the exam was hard)

Question 42

False consensus

Answer 42

Tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinion & one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors (ex: "Everyone speeds")

Question 43

False uniqueness

Answer 43

Underestimating the commonality of our own abilities (ex: "No one can draw as well as me")

Question 44

Self-handicapping

Answer 44

creating obstacles/excuses before performance (ex: if you fail = blame on external attributions | if you succeed = did so despite obstacles)

Question 45

unrealistic optimism

Answer 45

unrealistically positive views of things that will happen to you (ex: Even with high divorce rates, newlyweds will say their likelihood of divorce is 0%)

Question 46

self-presentation

Answer 46

strategies people use to shape what others think of them

Question 47

Three purposes of self-presentation:

Answer 47

-Obtain a desirable resource -Construct your self-image -Help others know how you expect to be treated (smoother interactions)

Question 48

social comparison theory

Answer 48

process through which people come to know themselves by observing Downward => Comparing to those less well off Upward => Comparing to those better off

Question 49

temporal distance & past selves (Ross & Wilson, 2000)

Answer 49

people report feeling farther away from former selves/experiences that have negative implications to their self-concept, but closer to former selves/experiences that have positive implications

Question 50

Illusions about self (reasons for self-protection):

Answer 50

Unrealistically positive self-evals: Often see ourselves as better than the average person Exaggerated perceptions of control: Often overestimate the degree of control you have over heavily chance-determined events Unrealistic optimism: Most people hold unrealistically positive views of the future

Question 51

positive illusions & mental health (Taylor & Brown, 1988)

Answer 51

suggest positive illusions & non-accuracy in viewing reality is part of mental health

Question 52

distinguishing between expectations & fantasies (Oettingen & Mayer, 2002)

Answer 52

Participants given a challenge, then their expectations/beliefs & images/daydreaming were assessed. Those who spent more time fantasizing were less likely to put forth effort toward future goal. => Fantasies allow for feelings of success, but can undermine work to actually achieve

Question 53

Naive realism

Answer 53

The belief that our perspective of the way things are is the way the world truly is; We are without bias or error.

Question 54

Egocentric bias

Answer 54

tendency to use ourselves as a standard & a basis for judging others

Question 55

status & goal-directed behavior (Anderson et al., 2015)

Answer 55

People engage in a wide range of goal-directed activities to manage their status & achieve greater status. People's subjective well-being, self-esteem, & mental/physical health are affected by successes or failures to achieve status in domains they care about.

Question 56

cognitive dissonance

Answer 56

Aversive mental state of discomfort people want to alleviate resulting from conflicting attitudes, beliefs, & behaviors

Question 57

Routes for resolving dissonance:

Answer 57

-Change behavior (to be consistent with attitudes/beliefs) -Change attitudes/beliefs (to be consistent with behavior) -Add new cognitions or thoughts (that are consistent with the behavior & attitudes/beliefs)

Question 58

moral disengagement

Answer 58

re-labeling inconsistent or questionable behavior as permissible for a larger moral purpose

Question 59

moral hypocrisy

Answer 59

we often apply strict moral standards to other people, but do not live to those same standards

Question 60

justification of effort

Answer 60

tendency for individuals to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain

Question 61

Justification of effort & increased commitment (Aronson & Mills, 1959)

Answer 61

Women were asked to join a group & explicitly talk about sex. Initiation screening was either very difficult (read aloud explicit sex words), mild (read mating, but not explicitly sex words), or neutral (non-sex words). Then, they listened to a long & boring discussion on animals. Assessed on how much they liked the discussion. Very difficult liked it most, then mild, then control.

Question 62

Situationist approach

Answer 62

Situations are often more stable & reliable predictors of behavior than personality

Question 63

Cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)

Answer 63

Behavior is best explained by if-then behavior profiles (someone does X in A situations, but Y in B situations). Demands of situations explain behavioral consistency across time.

Question 64

Identity & helping (Levine et al., 2006)

Answer 64

Ps were Manchester United fans Study 1 => Stressed the Manchester United identity => Manchester United victims received more help than Liverpool or ordinary victims. Study 2 => Stressed Football/Soccer fan identity => Manchester United AND Liverpool victims received help equally as much, but ordinary victims were not helped.

Question 65

social norms

Answer 65

Rules & standards that are understood within a situation or by a group. Guide or constrain social behaviors without the force of law.

Question 66

descriptive norms

Answer 66

Perceptions of where the group is (what most others are doing)

Question 67

injunctive norms

Answer 67

Perception of what the desirable attitudes or behaviors of a group are (what most others approve/disapprove of)

Question 68

Social norms in 2 ways:

Answer 68

In-group social norms & situation/context norms

Question 69

Self/Group-interest

Answer 69

Situations vary in salience of need to maximize material resources OR minimize harm to the self/one's group => People reactive differently if situations have direct personal/group interest

Question 70

conformity

Answer 70

act of changing one's behavior to match the responses of others

Question 71

compliance

Answer 71

conformity that involves publicly acting/going along with others, while privately disagreeing

Question 72

acceptance

Answer 72

conformity that involves publicly acting/going along with others while privately agreeing

Question 73

reasons for conformity:

Answer 73

Normative influence => To be liked & accepted by others Informational influence => To solve uncertainty & get information about what is the right thing to do

Question 74

Asch (1956)

Answer 74

Ps in a room with 7 others (all confederates) for a "visual perception" study. Everyone gave wrong answers most of the time. 75% conformed a majority of the time, 33% at least once, and 24% never did.

Question 75

Factors that increase informational influence:

Answer 75

Crisis (need to act w/little info), when others are experts, and when being accurate is important

Question 76

groupthink

Answer 76

Mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides realistic appraisals of alternatives

Question 77

characteristics of groupthink

Answer 77

-Feeling of invulnerability -Tendency to ignore/discredit info -Stress from external threats -Self-censorship & isolation from outside influences -Influential leader

Question 78

ways to prevent groupthink

Answer 78

-Encourage dissent (difference of opinion) -Call on outside experts to give opinions -Make sure group pools ALL available info -Create sub-groups -Make sure the leader DOES NOT voice their opinion

Question 79

how other people shape emotional responses:

Answer 79

Look to others for how to respond to events (ex: 9/11)

Question 80

Emotional contagion

Answer 80

the transfer of moods/emotions among people in groups or in-group settings

Question 81

group status & integration preferences (Hehman et al., 2011)

Answer 81

Participants were both black & white students. Put in a predominantly white area or a predominantly black area. When P was part of the majority => Assimilation preference for minority group When P was part of the minority => Pluralistic/multicultural preferences

Question 82

obedience

Answer 82

complying with direct or implied requests of people with higher status in a social hierarchy (ex: Milgram studies)

Question 83

reasons for obedience:

Answer 83

-Socialized to follow orders -Informational social influence (uncertainty increases reliance on authorities) -Self-consistency (ex: gradual increase of voltage in Milgram study) -Doing bad for "good" reasons (often do the most harm when they feel it's for a perceived common good)

Question 84

social roles

Answer 84

shared expectations about how a person who occupies a particular position is supposed to behave or act (ex: Stanford Prison Study)

Question 85

Stanford Prison Study

Answer 85

Results pointed towards evidence of the effects of leadership & social roles

Question 86

BBC prison replication study

Answer 86

Ps didn't automatically conform to assigned roles & only acted in terms of roles/group membership to the extent that they IDENTIFIED with the group. Group identity enabled the prisoners to resist. => Tyranny is understood through 2 interrelated processes -Authorities advocate for the oppression of others -Followers identify w/or want to identify with authorities that advocate for tyranny/oppression of others

Question 87

role morality

Answer 87

when people view unethical acts as permissible because they are acting in a role or on the behalf of others, rather than on the behalf of themselves

Question 88

Five steps to identify via identity (Reicher et al., 2008):

Answer 88

-Create a cohesive in-group -Exclusion (place targets outside of the in-group) -Threat (other groups are a danger to us) -Virtue (represent the in-group as uniquely good) -Celebration (celebrate inhumanity as defense of virtue)

Question 89

escalation of commitment

Answer 89

tendency for individuals or groups facing negative outcomes from a decision, action, or investment to continue with the initial course of action (small bad decisions getting you into bigger/worse situations)

Question 90

genocide

Answer 90

the deliberate & systematic destruction of an ethnic, racial, religious, or national group

Question 91

internal bystanders

Answer 91

members of the pop act as if everything is normal (ignoring violence & often participating in discrimination against victims)

Question 92

external bystanders

Answer 92

outside groups/nations typically remain passive (use minimal intervention)

Question 93

status-seeking within sub-groups (Overbeck, Correll, & Park, 2005)

Answer 93

People will behave in ways to achieve & maintain status within sub-cultures & groups. Situation of being in subcultures/groups can activate status achievement behaviors as defined by subculture/group.

Question 94

physical health & the situation (environment & elderly health, Langer, 1979)

Answer 94

Ps were men aged 75+. Preemptively measured physical & mental health. Spent a week in "1959" resort. Relative to pre-measures, Ps had better memory & health, increased performance on intelligence tests.

Question 95

Examples of situations shaping outcomes:

Answer 95

-Langer (1979) -Life expectancy can depend on place born -Mental health can rely on living environment (in community vs. isolation)

Question 96

variability in perceptions of the same situation (Sherman et al., 2014)

Answer 96

Ps were given the same stimuli about situations & then their interpretations of various situations were assessed. => People different in interpretations of the exact same situations. Personality & goals within the situation shaped interpretation.

Question 97

attribution

Answer 97

explanation for the cause of an event/behavior

Question 98

dispositional attribution

Answer 98

attributing behavior to a person's disposition/traits

Question 99

situational attribution

Answer 99

attributing behavior to the environment

Question 100

fundamental attribution error

Answer 100

tendency to overestimate dispositional influences & underestimate situational influences for the behaviors of others

Question 101

actor-behavior bias

Answer 101

for negative events, we make dispositional attributions for others' behaviors, but situational attributions for our own

Question 102

illusion of control (Langer, 1975)

Answer 102

Procedure: -Two people, each with own shuffled deck of cards (done beforehand) -Four rounds, each with a bet (noted) -Other person (usually confederate) dressed either stylish or sloppy -Measured amount of money bet & confidence Results => People bet more against the sloppily dressed person & reported more confidence (perceptions of control are rooted in subjective factors rather than objective characteristics of the situation

Question 103

When looking at research, ask:

Answer 103

-Are there inherent assumptions of theories or work presented? -Is there an implicit worldview in theories/work presented? -Does anyone inherently benefit from how the 'problem' is framed? Is there an implicit 'enemy' in how it's framed? -Does the work essentialize a set of people?

Question 104

conceptual variables

Answer 104

characteristics we are trying to measure

Question 105

operational definition

Answer 105

particular method used to measure the variable of interest

Question 106

self-report measures

Answer 106

individuals asked to respond to questions posed by an interviewer or on a questionnaire

Question 107

behavioral measure

Answer 107

designed to directly assess what people do

Question 108

optimistic explanatory style

Answer 108

way of explaining current outcomes affecting the self in a way that leads to an expectation of positive future outcomes

Question 109

self-efficacy

Answer 109

the belief in our ability to carry out actions that produce desired out comes

Question 110

affective forecasting

Answer 110

attempts to predict how future events will make us feel

Question 111

self-complexity

Answer 111

the extent to which people have many different & relatively independent ways of thinking about themselves

Question 112

implications of self-complexity

Answer 112

more complex => more positive outcomes, higher self-esteem, lower stress & illness, greater tolerance for frustration

Question 113

self-concept clarity

Answer 113

the extent to which one's self-concept is clearly and consistently defined (higher in individualistic cultures)

Question 114

minority influence

Answer 114

when a small group of people are able to influence the behaviors/opinions of a group

Question 115

minority influence occurs when:

Answer 115

minority is confident & consistent in judgments