Exam 1 Flashcards
(155 cards)
1
Q
Naming reveals what
A
Discovery, conquest, power over someone
Creating narratives without accuracy to reflect power
2
Q
Explain America’s naming origin
A
1507 Waldsemullrr map which was 1st description of Americas as own continent titled “… and the Discoveries of Amerigo Vespucci and others” aka Columbus
But
Amerigo chosen bc wrote 60 articles > 22 by Columbus
3
Q
Amerigo and voyages vs Columbus
A
Says 4 voyages but evident for 2
Writing was about land and discovery and sex aka more exciting = more publications
Columbus letters mainly about gold
4
Q
What are alternative names for America and why not great?
A
Turtle island
Abya Yala
Ananuac
Native
But not great bc Americas are diverse group of people and when describing people we need to be as specific as possible like Inca or Uruguay
5
Q
People arrival
Archaeology?
Languages?
Genetics?
Oral?
A
Archaeology reflected in artifacts
Language increase in time results in more diversity of language
Genes mutate at a predictable rate. And affiliation (who is the most related)
Oral: creation stories are rooted in some fact
6
Q
Clovis points:
Location
1st model
A
Found mostly in East?
1st model: Younger Dryas event ice sheet in Canada melted 13k y/a to make an ice-free corridor that allowed humans to migrate over the Bernigia land bridge and rapid expansion
Evidence: can see mammals being killed; clovis points
Theory made by men
7
Q
10,000 BC = ? AD
A
10,000 BC = 12,000 AD
8
Q
Monte Verde
A
Overturned Clovis 1st model theory because 3 facts
1 no Clovis points and no big game hunting
2 in S. Chile
3 14-18k y/a
Was maritime economy
9
Q
Current understanding of people’s arrival
A
Phase1: early migration along pacific coast “kelp” highway. Sites underwater now bc as ice melts the sea levels rise
Phase 2: people with Clovis migration after ice corridor
10
Q
Archaeology is understanding of
A
Archaeology is understanding of past human life; humanities: not dinosaurs because not humans
Study societies and cultures via material culture that doesn’t necessarily have to be deep in the past
Looking for patterns
Patterned by past and present human activities and natural environment
*thinking from things, not about things
11
Q
Connecting findings from past to now
Field time
A
Analogy: object looks like item from modern life
Comparison: compare objects from 1 house to another to see if better/worse/same. Synchronic: across same time period (horizontal). Diachronic before/after
Field time is expensive because slow, careful recorded deeply
12
Q
Case study: Huancavelica, Peru
Spanish and Mercury
Before?
During?
Why for Spanish?
How was this studied?
A
1491: Highland region of indigineous Inka Empire
Colonial conquest: Spanish learned that Peru of Andes had Mercury. Spanish registered a Mercury Mine in 1564 to refine silver. Colonial Peru was #1 exporter of silver ever in world history.
Why? Spanish was seeking wealth to fund their European imperial ambitions
Studied via Archaeological survey. If mines were dispersed, then mining was not as important.
Data created landscape and map of sites: found that the mining was once concentrated and overtime became less concentrated/important –> imperial control over mining decreased over time
13
Q
Archaeological logic
Middle Woodland Swift Creek example
A
How are you connecting scale and logic.
Middle woodland = era
Swift creek = location
14
Q
Case study Peru and English pottery
A
During IR, Spanish power really declined but England power growing by. England sees Peru’s independence in 1800s? But thinks if they invest, then Peru will be theirs. So England sets up mining.
Findings: Amazonian Peruvian parrot Serving Plate. British goods increased but colonial Peruvian goods amount stayed same. Food quality improved. Interpretation: Peruvians embraced more english goods without losing their own goods
15
Q
To make the connection between materials to society and culture requires
A
analogy
comparison (synchronic and diachronic)
16
Q
Essential tools of archaeology
A
Most important:
small mason’s trowel
folding ruler
notebook
total station
17
Q
What is fieldwork like?
A
destructive! requires proper training and being careful
expensive
18
Q
Excavation of Huancavelica mining community Santa Barbara to figure out what?
How?
A
Question: how did indigenous Andean incorporate global/British consumer goods
Classified houses into stone 1/2, abobe 1/2/3, etc.
Answer: found more British goods; local goods remained same; household wealth increased based on better food quality and better ceramic quality *found large serving plate with Amazonian macaw, produced in England
19
Q
excavation follows the law of ? for what?
A
superposition for stratigraphy
20
Q
Mann 2002 summary
Pristine
virgin soil
A
1491
Indians were present far longer than previously thought and in much greater numbers
“pristine myth” belief that the Americas n 1491 were an almost unmarked land
The Beni (Bolivian province): mounds for houses and gardens, trapped fish
Natives were unprepared for European diseases like small pox, measles, and flu “virgin soil” because Natives only domesticated dog, llama, alpaca, and guinea pig whereas Europeans lived in close quarters with animals
21
Q
Macaulay 1979
Motel of the mysteries
tomb = ?
Cause?
created?
credit card = ?
A
cartoon book
Event in 1985 killed all life on North America
Free brochures and fliers burned up N. Am.
roads were coded messages to powerful gods
road signs were monumental inscriptions
room = tomb
door: eye hole = sacred eye
forced lab assistant to wear treasures
created THE MUSEUM exhibit and souvenirs
other examples:
credit card = portable shrine and identification of religion
22
Q
Smith Harris 2001
What is archaeology?
difference between archaeology and anthropology
Archaeologists work in?
Data?
A
understanding interplay of life, society, daily chores, special rituals, social/political power, and why a community was abandoned or settled
some people agree that archaeology is sub-field of anthropology, some disagree
archaeology = understanding wider cultural processes
anthropology = creating explanations of human behavior
Archaeologists work in government, parks, museums, academia
data = artifacts AND their contexts (the site or other sites from same period or culture) + documents
23
Q
What method is used for material remains of object, feature, or house?
A
excavation
24
Q
What method is used for material remains of village, communities, political region?
A
regional survey
25
What method is used for material remains of political region, continent, global?
large-scale comparative analysis
26
What is found in specific location?
object/features
27
What is found in locale?
features/house
28
What is found in set of locales?
village
29
What is found in area
group of communities
30
What is found in region?
political region
31
What is found in macro-region?
continent/global
32
rank spatial scale from smallest at top to largest at bottom
specific location
locale
set of locales
area
region
macro-region
33
difference between historic, human, and geologic time?
geologic time: long-term cycle patterns of environment and climate shifts
historic: patterns of social, economic, or political systems (Capitalism or Renaissance or 1800s)
human: daily, annual, generational changes (birth, death, agriculture seasons, fashion)
34
Smith Harris 2001
Archaeological questions answered via
ex:
methods and techniques
ex: Middle Woodland Swift Creek (0-500 AD)
35
Smith Harris 2001
When (chronology, timeline) answered via
ex:
relative and absolute dating methods and/or cultural periods
ex: pottery, scrolls, spirals dated to specific cultural period about 500 y/a
36
Smith Harris 2001
Who, What, Where answered via
ex:
figure out interacting groups based on location of sites
ex: pottery has been identified in Georgia and N. Florida. Swift Creek pottery found in large camps along floodplains. evidence for trash heaps in coastal areas
37
Smith Harris 2001
Why, how answered via
ex:
theories to explain broad patterns of cultural change and continuity
ex: Woodland period consists of slow shift from hunting, gathering, fishing, to 1st ag attempts. These changes important for sociocultural change
38
3 fundamental goals of archaeologists
1 establish timeline
2 reconstruct past lifeways
3 provide explanation for patterns of human development
39
What is a city according to classic demographic definitions
1
2
3
4
critiques?
1 permanence
2 large population size
3 high population density
4 social heterogeneity (diversity)
critiques:
how to quantify?
40
all definitions of cities are ? But
In general, cities have never been ____ nor _____
wrong but some may be useful
In general, cities have never been natural or inevitable
41
Functional definitions of cities:
What ____?
Cities as ____ ____
important of _____
But ___?
What do cities do?
role of cities in ecogeopolitical in area --> cities central places for economic exchange
Cities as central places --> market, pilgrimage, power
importance of context
But where does city end?
42
Space
ex:
Geographic entities of different scales that are
produced by human action and shape human action
Franklin St.
15x15 square room
43
Place
ex:
Space that has been given meaning by humans
Franklin
classroom
44
Cities are places of
1
2
3
1 identity: meanings that attach places to people
2 community: social connections to other people (ethnic enclaves)
3 security: safety and well-being
45
Catalhoyuk
_____ y/a
in _____
considered ?
interesting point?
mounds?
Why?
Houses
exceptional?
dogs
Catalhoyuk
9k y/a in Southern Turkey
considered 1st city (but really 1st city that we have found)
no doors, entered through roof
2 mounds: East (older) and West; 18 layers
Why: not agricultural fertile; use of obsidian and mud
Houses: center of life; without segmentation; dead buried under houses
Settlement not exceptional BUT art/home quality is exceptional
Dogs predate domestication; evidenced by animal bones that are articulated w/o cut marks --> pets, herding because more livestock, guards (based on dog poop fossils)
46
In 200k years of humanity, how many years of cities?
10k years of cities
only 5% of humanity time
47
When did cities begin?
The Urban Revolution
48
Childe 1950
Who? Death?
1st revolution
And how he answered the Why behind cities
Old article with inaccuracies but one of most cited archaeological articles of time
"Great Synthesizer" - covered Europe and Middle East but little of East Asia and NO Americas
was blacklisted bc of Marxism and Socialist views
died by falling off a cliff
1st revolution: Neolithic
He determined crops came before cities because crops = surplus and need surplus to have resources to grow
49
Neolithic revolution
means:
When:
Where:
How/why:
What:
means: new stone
When: 10-12k y/a
Where: everywhere
How/why: climate (predictable weather), demography (rose from predictable weather), local context
What: domesticating crops (selecting for certain traits for generations)
50
2 examples of domesticating crops
1 teosinte plant --> corn
2 wild mustard --> brussles, cabbage, kale, broccoli (all same plant but came from different parts of wild mustard)
51
Childe assumptions
1 social evolutionary thinking: sees cities progression to empires as step-wise which isn't how life always works
2 lack of diversity/creativity is the norm: cities could only develop in a few places
3 civilization = urbanism: urbanism is the highest culture
4 urbanism = beneficial progress
52
Cons of cities?
People had to work harder to make living
had less freedom and self-determination because of taxes and government
Diseases and lifespan decreased (diet diversity found in middens and osteological studies)
Violence and chaos increased in many cases (osteological studies, military) more violence and fires because rebellion against new taxes and control
53
The Urban Revolution
significance:
Implications:
significance: What came first, crops or cities?
What defines a city? What is necessary for a city?
Implications: earliest and 1st thinking (the 1st city); notions of progress, who gets to have cities?
influence-Latin America
54
10 Urban traits (1950) and material signatures and compared to contemporary perspectives
1 increased ___ ____
2 concentration of ____
3 large-scale ____ ____
4 ______
5 representational ___
6 knowledge of _____ and _____
7 _____ ____
8 full-time _____ in ________ activities
9 ________ society
10 _____ organization based on _____ rather than ______
1 increased settlement size --> house quality, quantity, size --> Yes
2 concentration of wealth --> inequality in mortuary goods or household artifacts --> Mostly
3 large-scale public works --> plazas, irrigation, raised fields --> Mostly
4 writing - tablets, scripts, heiroglyphics --> No, but record-keeping yes
5 representational art --> frescos, paintings, statues, figurines --> No
6 knowledge of science and engineering --> infrastructure --> Yes, but not limited to cities
7 foreign trade --> household goods from afar --> Yes, but not limited to cities
8 full-time specialists in non-subsistence activities --> workshops --> Yes
9 class-stratified society --> systematic inequality --> Mostly
10 political organization based on residence rather than kinship --> permanent political residences (palaces) --> Mostly
55
Urban revolution criteria that is not current with contemporary perspective and it's components
5 representational art --> frescos, figurines, statues, paintings = No
4 writing --> tablets, scrolls, hieroglyphics = No BUT record-keeping is yes
56
Carballo and Fortenberry 2015
"Bridging ____ and ____ in the ____ of ___"
most archaeologists suggest urbanism seen on ____ (Urban Rev doesn't have an ____)
____ and ____ of cities: archaeologists consider ____ and ____. overlaps of ____, _____, and nuclei within cities --> 3 levels of city _____(high = ____; mid = ______; low = _____)
_____ and _____ also can be classified and analyzed
Bridging prehistory and history in the archaeology of cities
most archaeologists suggest urbanism seen on spectrum (Urban Rev doesn't have an endpoint)
growth and organization of cities: archaeologists consider intention and conflicts. overlaps of concentricity, sectorization, and nuclei within cities --> 3 levels of city layouts (high = symbolic; mid = power and inequality; low = cultural cues for everyday experiences)
public spaces, neighborhoods also can be classified and analyzed
57
Childe 1950
3 stages:
1
2
3
reflected by ?
social division?
surplus importance?
Childe's shortcomings
1: savagery: societies living exclusively on wild food
2 barbarism: supplementing natural resources through agriculture and animal husbandry
3 civilization: urban life and literacy, succeeds barbarism
reflected by population statistics; Urban Rev marked by huge increase in population density (influenced by food supply, transportation methods; Neolithic Rev via surplus and specialists in crafts and leadership roles but everyone had to contribute to food)
social division of labor based on age and sex
surplus needed to allow creation of specialists
shortcomings: did not touch cultural evolution
58
3 city types in S. America?
coast
mountains
jungle
59
Coast cities S. America
diet?
animals?
house style?
Coastal
fish/shellfish, sweet potatoes, guava
alpaca, llama
mudbrick with some stone
60
Mountain cities S. America
diet?
animals?
house style?
Mountain
starches/grains (potatoes, quinoa, corn), small game, alpaca
alpaca, llama
stone with some mudbrick
61
Jungle cities in S. America
diet?
animals?
house style?
Jungle
manioc, fish, birds, small game
none, but fish farms
wood with some stone
62
4 perspectives on S. American urbanism
1 comparative
2 pragmatic
3 axiomatic
4 functional
CPAF
1 comparative: Andean urbanism followed similar evo path as Mesoamerica, Mesopotamia + resource conflict led to militaristic states and admin
2 pragmatic: just large permanent dwellings + population pressure
3 axiomatic: Andean cities were required to maintain class divisions
4 functional: Andean cities developed around monumental, public, and religious architecture
63
Chavin de Huantar
3k y/a
architecture
plazas/temple
staff god
feasting
mazes
earliest example of monumental architecture in mountains
multiple plazas, some sunken. New and Old temple
staff god = carved into stones, holding cactus that is a hallucinogenic
lots of ritual feasting (partying); corn beer, steak, ceramic and food quality increased with each plaza level
series of mazes on inside with 7ft statue and instruments; maybe convinced viewer to come back and bring more people
64
Chavin de Huantar viewed through 4 proposals
1 C
2 P
3 A
4 F
1 comparative: look at other similar ritual city-centers
2 pragmatic: population support
3 axiomatic: elite priest class
4 functional: pilgramages
65
What is Mesoamerica?
created by who?
cosmology overlap
ecological similarities
density
region created by archaeologists
very diverse ethnically
cosmology overlap: creation stories, ball game, calendar
ecological similarities: "three sisters"
high population density and urbanization
66
3 parts of Mesoamerica
1 central Mexico/Gulf Coast
2 Maya Highlands
3 Maya Lowlands
67
Olmec society of the Gulf Coast
name
art and trade?
Mesoamerica effect?
Olmec power?
Olmec translates to "rubber people"
Anthropormorphic art, intense trade (jade and obsidian), and cities
Hypothesized "mother culture" of Mesoamerica: ball game, calendar, writing, zero
Olmec power had settlement hierarchy and larger settlements around water crossing; large centers with mounds and heads
68
Olmec settlements
Olmec was blend of larger regional centers and smaller ones; some connected via water crossings
69
Olmec Urbanism and Sociopolitical complexity
Multiple tiers of labor:
Olmec power: found ?
elite residences?
Multiple tiers of labor: large centers (many monumental buildings and carvings); medium (few), small villages (none, mainly agricultural)
Olmec power: found small settlements were factories for processing raw goods (jade and obsidian) and political control over some goods
BUT maize not as important (because ate more roots+birds/mammals)
elite residences (size/quality) had higher quality goods and more associated with workshops
70
What makes a successful city?
infrastructure
71
What is infrastructure?
landscape-scale connections that are bigger than and more used than one household
*shape intentionally and unintentionally human behavior, beliefs, and collective action
72
2 roles for infrastructure
1infrastructure as performance:
cycles of construct/maintain/repair
performance of power
2 materialized dialogue:
can understand the layout to understand ancient city planning
infrastructure is ostensibly (seemingly) planned
73
Carballo 2022
How?
analyzed 32 MesoAm cities to see why some cities lasted longer than others based on ecology, demography, housing, public monuments, shared walls etc.
Conclusion: social infrastructure is very important
74
Heat wave book
social infrastructure promotes public gathering and face to face interactions --> because it promotes people gathering because brings cohesion and builds resilience in cities that are unnatural
Chicago case study
plazas for gathering (social infra) was factor that kept more people alive (more than race/class)
75
Broad trends in MesoAm urbanism
population density increased over time
Highland cities more dense than lowland
Shared/social infra with small relative size to population --> correlated with city longevity
neighborhood scale infra was more important than monumental
councils > palaces
76
The "Moundbuilders"
settler logic:
settler logic: Native Am are telling us their ancestors made these mounds, they still use these mounds, but who actually made these mounds?
Because
1 unable to see Natives as competent
2 Manifest destine, pristine environment, and vacuum dominiculum (empty land)
77
Watson Brake
age?
size?
rock?
agriculture?
maize?
Region
cycles
Older than Stonehenge or Pyramids
largest man made construction until skyscrapers = indicating lots of coordination
fire cracked rock = campfire because not made from natural forces
No agriculture, so implication would be is if it is considered a city... Although, there were enough resources to support people
introduced maize and intensification
Regional "cultures" - Adena, Hopewell, Mississippian and regional groupings of mound building
cycles of development and "collapse" of the people who are hierarchy or society
78
Southwest
agriculture
region
Agriculture and masters of irrigation
3 sisters
Regional "cultures" - Hohokam, Acestral Pueblo
Shared artifact patterns
roads, sunken plazas, kivas
connections to MesoAm
Chaco Canyon
79
Poverty Point
structure?
crafts
Why?
nature of social organization
1/2 concentric circles of mounds with aisles
found evidence for craftmaking (workshops); stone jewelry and clay figurines, PPO raw resources came from far distances away to PP
Why? people from lower MS traveled to PP to drink and trade and after visiting, they would make crafts at their own settlement BUT STILL NO AG
postholes: postholes in circle = house
Nature of social organization = more egalitarian because mounds made with many layers of different dirt --> must have been built fast to not shift with rain --> many people needed to build and no coercive forces found bc same resources and no king/queen
80
Article for 2/7 analyzed space and place to figure out hierarchy
81
if it is social, then it is ?
Think?
if it is social, then it is spatial
spatial relations = social relations
Think burning man: different neighborhoods, farther out/closer = different people
82
Space
geographic entities of different scales that are produced by human action and shape human action
83
place
space that has been given meaning by humans
84
both space and place are what?
hence
?
both space and place are produced by human action
hence
how do spaces and places transform humans AND how do humans transform spaces and places?
85
Andean Plazas
How to study a plaza?
domain of the plaza is an arena for encounters: social infrastructure
How to study a plaza?
formal models or interaction based models
importance of Proxemics leads us to let's understand how space is used on social interactions
86
Andean spaces?
Cerro Bual or Cuzco etc. (cities)
or
Inka, Tiwanaku, Chimu
87
3 Andean settlements
Chimu
Tiwanaku
Inka
88
Chimu Spatial analysis
Restricted access, controlled-interpersonal interaction
89
Inka spatial analysis
theater of power
90
Tiwanaku spatial analysis
restricted access, but controlled theater
91
difference between archaeology and geography?
archaeology = narratives of place through time
geography = spatial form and social process
*lots of overlap
92
Data sources and collection:
Remote sensing:
Survey:
Artifact analysis:
Oral histories and archives:
GIS:
Data sources and collection:
Remote sensing: Satellites, LIDAR
Survey: mapping, photography, artifact patterns
Artifact analysis: production-distribution-exchange
Oral histories and archives: turning narrative into space
GIS: geographic info systems; digital tools
a) model site location
b) model movement patterns
c) model site lines and visual perspectives
93
Case Study Malata in Andes
Malata was originally Incan settlement with many walls that directed to Incan plaza
After Spanish conquer, the walls rebuilt directed to chapel and new Spanish plaza
94
Chaco Canyon
kivas
polities
agriculture
Boundary
archaeological conditions
kivas - ritual subterranean
multiple polities (sociopolitical groups) developed over last 2k years
heavy maize agriculture/desert irrigation
Boundary between Northern MesoAm or distinct region is hazy
Ideal archaeological conditions because very dry, and lots of lumber for tree ring dating using radiocarbon
95
The Chaco Phenomenon
intensive maize agriculture
long distance trade
"Great House" architecture style
Pottery styles
Roads
Rock art
not producing a lot (no luxuries or staples), but consuming a lot (chocolate, maize, jade)
96
Why was Chaco built?
Competing theories
Astronomy, trade, pilgrimage, agricultural productivity (re-examinations, basketmaker culture)
In general, people asking this question are just confused and carry assumptions about desert carrying capacity
97
What kind of city was Chaco?
Great Houses --> massive labor requirement and places of elite consumption
Kivas - ritual spaces (still used today)
Drinking and power
98
What was the end of Chaco?
Paleoclimate evidence:
tree rings, ice-core, drought (50 years)
Archaeological evidence:
ritual closures, burning, intentional breaking of pots
99
Water is
ethereal, beauty, marker of status
100
Cenote Ik-kil
what?
why important?
meaning?
subterranean water hole (formed from limestone of Yuc. Pen being eroded from rainwater and opens up on a cave)
Cenotes important because no rivers in Yuc. Pen
spiritual meaning to Mayans
101
Which building is built on top of a large cenote?
El Castillo, Chichen Itza
102
Yuc. ring from what?
Meteor that killed dinosaurs
103
Hydraulic societies
what?
how?
power over distribution and consumption of water affects structure of society ex: Inca, Mesoamerica
if area has rivers, a flood would require infrastructure to manage it --> leads to authoritarian societies/rulers (ex: Pharos)
104
How to study water?
Infrastructure:
Remote sensing:
Soil/botanical analysis:
How to study water?
Infrastructure: Canals, Dams, Aqueducts, Reservoirs, Architecture, etc.
Remote sensing: Satellites, LIDAR, Drones
Soil/botanical analysis: wetlands, seasonality
105
complex societies =
complex in power
106
Why did some areas of the world develop into "complex societies"?
Power emerges through controlling access to water (irrigation and flood management)
Hydraulic states are despotic, hierarchical, and authoritarian
107
Critiques of Hydraulic Thesis:
Empirical: Political complexity without irrigation
Critiques of Grand Narratives and Evolutionary Explanations: critiques the development of cities and states, never has 1 correct answer
BUT
all societies are hydraulic societies to some degree
just because near water doesn't always mean city will be hydraulic society
108
Cahokia
hydraulic state?
cosmology
largest settlement until 1850s based on land they moved
yes, hydraulic state because little evidence of traditional irrigation techniques
cosmology: 1) big tree on biggest mound and lightening 2) see land as watery landscapes
109
Cahokia
watery landscapes
built in Mississippi floodplain with flood mitigation measures
1) borrow pits: leaving pits open that collect water
2) causeways: raised areas for transportation during floods
3) found watery plants in North Plaza --> North Plaza thought to be dry but actually big watery landscape
110
General watery landscapes
archaeology:
Watery landscapes:
Landscape archaeology:
study of cultural and environmental variables influencing the way humans interacted with their landscape
How people of past shaped land around them consciously or unconsciously
Watery landscapes: understanding how water incorporates into daily practice which is never simply or only biological. *water is connected to stories and relationship beyond the natural world
111
The Maya World
what was thought and why?
How did they get water?
thought that Yuc could not support a dense population because no rivers, but were wrong
no springs, rivers, lakes, stranding groundwater, no cenotes --> problems:
1) How do you capture rainwater before it disappears especially because Yuc is porous limestone
2) How do you store water, especially during dry seasons
3) Hydraulic technologies
Aguadas: large open water reservoirs, limestone pits periodically lined with clay that are man-made
Chultunob: small underground water cisterns
112
Significance of water to the Mayans
saw Mayan cities as turtles on the sea
ex: main pyramids built on cenotes
water could be used as a resource of control ( *if you control the water, then you control the Yuc) OR performance (*if you control water, then your role has a sense of legitimacy)
113
Case study Aguadas:
Small Maya city of Nakum:
Guatamala/Belize border
Built aguadas through ceremonial core; elite core had Aguadas
Wet and dry seasons
created canals around pits that traveled to Acropolis
being used as a central form of power
114
water in Maya lowlands vs highlands
Maya lowlands: cenotes
Maya highlands: no cenotes
115
Case study Chultunes
small cavities excavated into the limestone, close to residential groups
Multi-functional: storage, fermentation, water storage, water ritual (because sometimes find 1 or 2 broken artifacts)
household scale = decentralized
116
What type of power is water?
Political economy of Water:
hierarchy: top-down from leaders to lower-class
heterarchy: still have leaders but leaders don't control everything --> 1 group doesn't dominate everything
117
Case study Aventura:
important
inequality
Bajos
interpretation
important because city developed during drought and political reorganization
Maya collapse meant that something made them change then classic Maya collapsed
found Bajos which were ponds/depressions (medium sized, between aguada and chultunob) and manmade, lined with clay; irregular
inequality via housing size and masonry
Households located within 20m of bajos *independent of status
interpretation: water was NOT a resource of control; making a deliberate choice to keep elites from controlling power influenced by the hierarchy of other cities which they fled from
118
Case study Inka and water:
describe
estate
multiethnic empire
fairly authoritarian, very expansive
elite loved baths
water poetry
Built a royal estate called Tipon which is a water garden built in a way to maximize water sensory and in an elite, hierarchical manner --> elite baths larger and higher up that flowed down to lower baths in which less nobles were invited (hierarchy of water flow reflected in hierarchy of social relations)
Chachabamba = ceremonial water complex/site
119
Mithen 2012
water poetry: sensory aspects of water, sounds
120
define domestication
humans selecting for certain traits in plants or animals for many generations; purposes to maximize yield, size, or for material, social, or symbolic profit
BUT
spectrum of animal-human agency
Marked by
physical changes: overall size, smaller brains in animals --> more bang for buck
molecular changes: evolutionary speed, age (when did this thing become domesticated), number and times of domestication, rewilding (when plants become wild again)
Behavioral: animals that are more tame than wild relatives; reproduction frequency and neotony (retention of childlike feature and behaviors into adulthood
121
dogs:
when/where
how?
1st domesticated animal
assistants and companions
helped us domesticate other animals ex: herding
when/where:
date is pushed back earlier each year, gray wolf but which one?
based on burials and teeth remains
how? directed theories (humans taking active roll to change a species): wolf puppy theft
commensal theories: (domestication is a co-agency process): domestication happens over time as puppies go to camps as followers for free food (garbage) and humans get alarm system and companion
Prey: why hunt when you can herd? why be hunted when you can be herded?
122
consequences of Neolithic Rev:
cities
food
disease
social organization
inequality (because food provides a medium of control)
123
Cerro Baul
Southern Peru in the Andes
Moquegua Valley
Andes were split between 2 states growing a lot of corn; war showed up; one group in lower valley and other group in upper valley by rivers with ton of canals that dried up river Moquegua; Tiwanaku political order disintegrated (maybe because of water issues) Big party at Cerro Baul before abandonment
no everyday objects
brewed corn beer 1 week ahead
28 unique drinking vessels-placed in a burning brewery
124
What is purpose of throwing parties?
social environment gives opportunities to show off social standing (political reasons) or reward labor
125
What does "feasting" do?
needs
critiques
form of ritual practice
political/economic transactions
religion/ceremony
To be a technical feast it needs to:
operate at a different tempo than average meal --> special
involves ritual beyond the everyday
has distinct food/drink
Critiques:
Overly elite centered or top-down
Too much of a focus on the spectacle rather than the production
Assumptions of success
126
How do we study feasting?
narrative accounts:
oral histories
ethnohistory
perspective into meaning and practice
paleobotany and zooarchaeology:
What were people eating and drinking? How were they preparing it?
What's the scale and what's different?
Architecture:
plazas and power
sensory environment
Artifacts:
Ceramics, tools, clothes
Identity, function, and symbolism
127
Foodways:
not just food but everything that goes into food (preparing, growing, disposal, processing)
*culturally specific and meaningful ways in which we get, make, eat, and share food
128
What goes into food?
environment and ecology
procurement/production (ingredients and how were they procured)
storage (who holds the food and at what scale?)
processing with what tools
cooking methods, flavors; who's cooking and where?
when/where/with who are consuming
meaning of food
^all of these are connected
129
How do archaeologists study food?
botanical remains: macro or micro (pollen)
faunal remains (bones)
dietary stable isotopes
paleofeces
tools: ceramics, lithics (stone tools)
texts
narrative accounts
flow cytation machine
130
Eastern Woodlands:
primarily an archaeological region which is arbitrary
131
procurement/production in EW
mast (*staple) - acorns, hickory nuts, walnuts, pecans
wetlands: fish, molluscs, turtles, beaver
hunting: deer and turkey
foraged plants: berries, fruits, tubers, greens
EAC plants: acorn squash, chenopod, sunflower, sumpweed, knotweed
Mesoamerican plants: 3 sisters
colonization: watermelon and peaches
132
changes in food over time in EW
consistent before colonization: mast, wetlands, and foraging
Eastern Ag Complex: emerged over 1000s of years
Mesoam. imports: 3 sisters
colonization-era European plants
133
EAC
what
how/why
when
what: acorn, squash, chenopod, sunflower, sumpweed
most no longer exist in domesticated form
how/why: various theories
when: 2300 to 7k years BP
134
changing food: when and why
agency
spectrum of agency: tried and true methods vs experiments and doing what's best for you
Because people make best choices for their local situation --> imperfect knowledge of outcomes + calculation of risk (balancing tried and true methods against risky persuit of new ways
change can be slow or fast
development of EAC = slow
maize adoption = fast
135
changing food:
what leads people to adopt some new crops and not others?
compatibility with existing procurement/production practices (ex: watermelon and peaches were adopted because they already knew how to grow because of pumpkins and plums; didn't want to adopt rice/wheat because practices were too different)
compatibility with cooking methods (ex: hominy and acorns)
preference and taste (ex: nixtamanlization)
social and cultural context
136
Gender division
women farmed and foraged based on ethnohistories and iconography
men hunted based on ethnohistories
BUT divisions not absolute
"Harvest crunches"
137
EW cooking
nixtamalization:
soupmaking:
nixtamalization: alkaline solution + heat treatment of maize kernels to make hominy --> very similar to soak and leach process for acorns
soupmaking: ground up mast (usually pecans) and dropped into boiling water "Ku-Nu-Che" very similar to one of sunflower recipes described by Maxi'diwiac
138
Maxi'diwiac
woman interviewed for book
described sunflower recipe by highlighting sunflower plant associations with planing, harvesting, varieties, preference and taste, storage, and recipes with *social context
"here's what we did, and here's what we liked" and songs they would sing
giving context by adding stories = hard to separate food from the people
139
meaning, context, and identity from food
food as ____ and _____
_____ vs _____
_____ associations
woman hitting snake figurine:
food as identity and community
feasting vs everyday
ritual associations
figurine with woman hitting snake and squash vines traveling up her back = food has meaning
140
food we eat comes with
background: production, procurement, storage, cooking
history: intentional or inherited choices
context: meaning, identity, and community
141
Low 1995 Indigenous Architecture and the Mesoamerica and the Caribbean
paradox of the plaza
Ashmore and Low's patterns of site growth
paradox of the plaza:
false assumptions of colonial plazas that they were new and false because were built upon indigenous plaza by comparing different sites and can figure out how plazas differ between forces
any spatial form, contemporary monument, or town plan is a product generated by conflicting sociopolitical forces
Ashmore and Low's patterns of site growth: How did they do simple expansion, engulfment, lateral displacement, destruction?
142
Tipu, Belize
there's more continuity in this belief system than other sites because pyramid standing
143
Santo Domingo Convent, Cusco, Peru
site for religion and remains some of walls when Spanish came, they knocked it down and built a church on top of it in a physical and symbolic way to take over
144
Santo Domingo, DR
wiped out all indigenous from site because there are no remnants of indigenous work
145
Merida, Mexico
little remnants of indigenous work
146
Urban planning:
orthogonal (grid) layout
only orthogonal (grid) layout = planned is WRONG because we generally think that our ways are the best way (projections of the present into the past)
*reality is that all cities must be planned because all cities are unnatural
147
3 definitions of Urban planning:
1 deliberate actions of builders BUT not all actions are deliberate
2 how does a city follow an urban design? Standardization, looking for common features among many sites
3 how are buildings coordinated? formal organization of space
148
Examples of urban planning with Coordination
Becan (Maya) because entry ways enter into open spaces
149
Planning coordination:
formality and monumentality: organizational principles are clear to people; large open spaces, symmetry
Geometric layout
access and visibility
150
Planning Standardization:
Architectural inventories: think all colleges have same set of buildings, same with Aztec cities all have temple, palace, ball court
So, all cities or areas of city have same:
architectural inventory
layout
and orientation around same directions
151
Meaning behind Urban Planning?
What are builders projecting?
Was Cusco built in shape of animal?
planning and power: demonstrating imperial confidence because a well planned city demonstrates efficiency and a city on the rise
152
Inka empire or "Tawantinsuyu"
saw world
saw their world as 4 parts together and they were the ones who brought it together
153
Political economy
2 types of strategies for use of objects to create sociopolitical power
how resources are distributed in a society
2 types of finance: wealth (high-labor input specialized goods) and staple finance (ag foodstuffs)
^not mutually exclusive
154
Inca Political Economy
no central markets and no money
labor was currency
Inca had their peoples pay their taxes with labor and coordinated this during massive feasts with local elites held at different scales
155
Huanuco Pampa
Before
After
Before Incan takeover, was forts with lots of warfare
After,
site of feasting, didn't have major walls --> didn't police their subjects even though they used to have warfare w/ each other *also Incan confidence
Incan built roads with large admin centers for taxation and redistribution
*supported by types of stone walls for passageway "Temporary Urbanism" because using short-term interventions for long-term change
