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Bio lab exam > Exam 1 > Flashcards

Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

before 1960s, all life was in one of two kingdoms

A

plants and animals

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2
Q

field of view

A

-amount of slide visible at one time decreases as magnification increases

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3
Q

depth of field

A

-thickness of slide in focus at one time decreases as magnification increases

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4
Q

light intensity

A

-amount of light passing through to your eye

-decreases as magnification increases

-controlled by :
-rheostat (adjusts intensity)
-iris diaphragm (adjusts contrast)

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5
Q

drawing for biology

A

-art and science coexist

-much of science began with artists observing natural organisms and phenomenon

-careful observation is a fundamental skill as a biologist

-scientific drawings help to keep a record of oberservatins of your specimens

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6
Q

Blind contour drawing

A

an exercise where you draw the outline of a subject without looking at the paper

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7
Q

contour drawing

A

-about depiciting the object only with lines, and not shading

-a contour refers to the outside line of a form. it establishes the layout, size, and emphasis

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8
Q

scientific drawings

A

-must be in pencil
-draw more than one cell for tissues
-dont use shading
-labels to right when few
-draw only what is actually visable
-include detailed figure caption

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9
Q

taxonomy

A

-based on evolutinoary relationships

-three parts
1: classification
2: nomenclature
3: identification

-three domain system
-archaea, bacteria, eukarya

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10
Q

classification: hierarchy

A

Domain = eukarya
kingdom = animalia
phylum =chordata
class = mammalia
order = primates
family= hominidae
genus = homo
species = sapiens

domain is most inclusive, species is least inclusive

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11
Q

nomenclature

A

-names of taxa at various levels of hierachy come from latin and greek roots

-binomial names
-exclusive 2-part name for each organism
-genus + specific epithet = species

-often descriptive for certain traits of the organism

example: canis familiaris

canis from latin for dog, familiaris from latin for family

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12
Q

phylogeny

A

-evolutionary history of group of related organisms

-represented as “tree”

-branching reflects evolutionary relationships (lineages)

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13
Q

node

A

-point of change of a trait from one state to another (derived)

-defines a lineage

-represent the common ancestor of lineages after branch point

-taxa that are more related share a more recent common ancestor

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14
Q

identification: Dichotomous keys

A

-used to identify unknown specimens

-provide a series of couplets that lead to an identification (1a, 1b)

-each part of a couplet is mutually exclusive of the other

-focus on characters unique to given group of organisms

-good keys will use 2-3 characters at each step

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15
Q

there are three broad groups that organisms fall

A

Domain Bacteria, Domain Archaea, and Domain Eukarya (Eukaryotes)

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16
Q

organisms previously classed as kingdom monera (prokaryotes) are now

A

split into 2 domains- bacteria and archaea

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17
Q

Domain Eukarya organisms are further classified into informally groups called-

A

supergroups

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18
Q

phylogeny definition

A

history of evolution of a species or group, especially in reference to lines of decent and relationships among broad groups of organisms

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19
Q

taxonomy definition

A

a system of classification

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20
Q

taxonomy is the-

A

branch of biology that deals with all aspects of classifying the diverse forms of life

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21
Q

what are the three facets to taxonomy:

A

1: arrangement of organisms into groups based on shared similar characters (classification)

2) assignment of names to taxa or groups (nonmenclature)

3) arrangement of the classification into a form that can be used to identify specimens, such as a dichotomous key ( identification)

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22
Q

1) classification

A

descriptions based on quantitative or qualitative traits

based on obersevations of traits and the development of detailed descriptions to differentiate a group of species from all other species

once it is described it is grouped with others like it and ranked in a hierarchical manner called classification

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23
Q

qualitative

A

why, how, what behind behaviours

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24
Q

quantitative

A

how many or measurable data

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25
Q

2) Nomenclature

A

Whats in the name?

a system for scientific naming of organisms within an internationally accepted set of rules

once species have been determined to be a novel and the relationship to other related species determined, the taxonomist can choose a name

new name can relate to some characteristic of the new organism such as shape, colour, size, geographic location, or may be named in honour of somone

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26
Q

genus is always-

A

capitalized while the specific epithet remians in lower case

always italic or underlined

Helianthus annuus

when refereing to more than one genus, it is written as Helianthus spp.

if the species name in unknown you can use Helianthus sp. (sp is regular font)

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27
Q

binomial

A

a two-part latin name

always written out in full the first time, then the genus can be abbreviated

H. annuus

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28
Q

Hierarchy

A

a wolf is first recognized as Eukarya (Domain), then as an animal (Kingdom), then Chordata (Phylum), mammmalia (class), Carnivora (order), canidae (family)

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29
Q

what is the entire hierarchy from most to least inclusive?

A

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species

(DOGS KICK PEOPLE CUZ OLDER FEMALES GOT SPICEY)

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30
Q

how do trees work

A

-the names along the top of the figure are the taxa (taxon)

-the line connecting each taxon is a branch and the point where two or more branches connect is called the node

-the node represents the common ancestor of the taxa at the end of the connecting branches.
we can trace related taxa back to a common ancestor from which the inherited specific traits

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31
Q

identification

A

dichotomous keys are useful and are the fastest and most reliable method

keys are contructed in a series of paired, mutually exclusive statements (couplets) that divide a set of objects into smaller groups in a series of steps

at each step you will choose between two statements, then either determine or move to another couplet

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32
Q

another word for dichtomous key

A

taxonomic

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33
Q

rules to dichotomous keys

A

-each step requires a couplet with mutually exclusive characteristics

-couplets are designated by numbers and statements within the couplet by lower case letters 1a and 1b

-each step in a group distinguishes the organisms into two smaller units where each unit either identifies and names an object or gives directions as to where to go next in the key

-the beginning couplets tend to focus on more general characteristics while later couplets refer to increasingly specific traits

-couplets should not be based on statements of relative size, subtle differences in colour, general shape, etc. as these characteristics can be ambiguous, can change in preserved specimens, and often are only distinguishable if all aspects can be compared in the specimens

-each couplet should contain more than one characteristic in case some features are not distungishable on the specimen. it is not good form to use the statement “not above characters”

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34
Q

2 scales of evolution

A

microevoluton

macroevolution

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35
Q

evolution occurs through

A

natural selection

gene flow

genetic drift

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36
Q

mutations and adaptations

A

-random changes in DNA

-Favourbale changes are preserved

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37
Q

allele

A

an alternative version of a specific gene

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38
Q

genotype

A

genetic composion of an organism

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39
Q

phenotype

A

expression of measurable triats based on genotype

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40
Q

population

A

a group of individuals sharing the same space and time

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41
Q

gene pool

A

the total number and kind of alleles in genes of interest in a population

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42
Q

natural selection

A

-observations
-variation among individual inherited traits
-not all offsrping survive to reproduce due to competition for limited resources

-inferences
-best adapted individuals leave more offspring
-most favorable traits passed on

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43
Q

evolution via natural selection

A

-heritability

-veriabliity

-reproductive advantage

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44
Q

evidence for adaptive evolution sea urchin

A

-they belong to phylum echinodermata

-dwell on ocean floor and tidal zones

-bilateral larvae

-secondary radial symmetry as adults

-spiny calcareous endoskeleton

-well developed body cavity

-unique locomotion, feeding and gas exchange (water vascular system)

-complete digestive tract

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45
Q

the theory of evolution is-

A

our understanding of the biological diversity

46
Q

descent with modification

A

links all organisms back to a common ancestor

47
Q

the main idea of natural selection and adaptive evolution

A

a population of organisms will change over time in peeps with certain heritable traits have better reproductive success than other peeps

48
Q

populations contain-

A

a pool of alleles that have arisen through random mutations and recombination

49
Q

microevolution

A

small-scale evolutionary changes in allele frequencies within a population

changes are observed over a short time and can be reversible

peeps in these pops are still able to mate and produce viable offspring

50
Q

macroevolution

A

a process where evolutionary events result in the creation of a new species or taxonomic group, diffrent from parent

at some point peeps in the pop accumulate so many heritable mutations that they are no longer capable of reproducing with their ancestral organisms and a new species is formed

51
Q

natural selection is a-

A

non-random process that favours adaptive traits

if these adaptive traits have a genetic basis (heritable), natural selection can result in evolution- a change in frequency of a heritable trait as it passes from one gen to the next

52
Q

the trait under consideration must have:

A

heritablity

variability

reproductive advantage

53
Q

what are two random processes

A

the bottleneck and the founder effect which cause genetic drift or random changes in the genetic status of a pop

54
Q

bottle neck effect

A

a reduction in the size of a pop as a result of mortality that is not due to the quality of a person traits but is simply a result of ‘bad luck’

(natural disasters)

-after disaster- changes allele freqencies resulting in evolution

55
Q

the founder effect

A

the seperation of a few peeps into a new pop by a random process that is also not due to the quality of their traits

the genetic makeup of the ‘new’ pop likely differs from that of the founding pop

56
Q

genetic drift is much-

A

stronger in small pop then large ones

57
Q

adaptations

A

characteristics that are favoured by natural selection lead to adaptations, which increase the fitness and functioning of the peeps in relation to its environment

allow organisms to deal with selection pressures in their habitat and lifestyle

-they can be structural, behavioural, or physiological

58
Q

structural adaptations

A

traits such as body shape, type of appendages or fur colour

59
Q

behavoural adaptations

A

changes in the way an organism behaves to deal with environmental pressures, such as making food caches, sleeping underground

60
Q

physiological adaptations

A

traits are also part of an organisms phenotype because they represent the biological function of some anatomical feature

-large ears on a rabbit help it hear, but also function for heat dispersal from the central core of the body to the environment during hot weather

61
Q

adaptive evolution

A

pops naturally exhibit genotypic and phenotipic variation and peeps with traits that are better suited in a given havitat will compete better and leave more offspring

many adaptations taken together can help us infer how adaptive evolution plays an important role in the evolutionary history of a species

62
Q

how might radial symmetry be an advantage for sea urchins?

A

it could sense a threat or food from all sides of it

63
Q

what is the function of pedicellariae?

A

pincers that help move and grab food, as well as remove unwanted things

64
Q

what is a coelom

A

the fluid- or air-filled body cavity that separates the digestive tract from the endoskeleton body covering

65
Q

why is the water vascular system important for the sea urchin?

A

to feed and get rid of waste, respiration, and so that it can move

66
Q

phylogeny

A

-hypothesis of the evolutionary relationships between organisms of interest

-shown as “tree”

-branching of different organisms indicates evoutionary relationships between linegaes

67
Q

node

A

-point of chnage of a trait from one state to another

-defines lineage
-based on shared derived characteristics

68
Q

plesiomorphic

A

plesio = ancestral condition

sym-pleisiomorphy = shared ancestral trait

69
Q

apomorphic

A

apo= derived condition

syn- apomorphy = shared derived trait
-traits that define specific groups or clades

aut- apomorphy = derived trait that is not shared

70
Q

polarizing characters

A

-determining which character states are plesiomorphic and which are apomorphic

-(0) - if the ingroup taxon has the same character state as the outgroup (has ancestral/plesiomorphic condition

-(1)- ingroup taxon has a different state for a given character relative to outgroup (has the apomorphic condition for that state)

71
Q

parismony

A

-principle used to decide between several hypotheses; simplest interpretation of data = likely correct explanation

72
Q

measuring parsimony

A

tree length
- measure of number of changes in character states (sum of characters mapped)
-shortest TL = most parsimonious tree (least steps)

consistency index
-measure of how many times a specific trait changes state
-calculated by number of characters/ TL

73
Q

monophyletic

A

contains most recent common ancestor of all group members and all of its decendants

-also called a clade

74
Q

types of lineages

A

monophyletic

paraphyletic

polyphyletic

75
Q

paraphyletic

A

-contains most recent common ancestor of all group members and some of its descendants

76
Q

polyphyletic

A

-does not include most recent common ancestor of all group members

-members derived from 2 or more ancestral forms

77
Q

vertebrae

A

during the cambrian period, a lineage of chordates gave rise to vertebrates

a skeletal system and more complex nervous system fostered more complex behavours

78
Q

jaws

A

hagfish and lampreys dont have jaws

jawed vertebrates include sharks and their relatives, rey-finned fishes, lobefinned fishes, amphibans, reptiles, and mammals

79
Q

skeleton

A

-the cartilaginous skeletons of the chondrichthyans can be mineralized with calcium for added support

80
Q

eggs

A

amniotic egg is an egg that contains additional membranes designed to protect the growing embryo

-it may or may not have an external shell

81
Q

thermoregulation

A

-poililothermy is found in organisms that do not have an internal mechanism for maintaining a constant body temp

-homeothermy is found in organisms that have an internal mechanism to maintain a very stable and constant body temp

82
Q

mammary glands

A

-mammary glands produce milk for the vertebrate young

-this characters is associated with the presence of ‘hair’

83
Q

myxini

A

hagfish

84
Q

petromyzontida

A

lampreys

85
Q

chondrichthyes

A

sharks, skates, rays

86
Q

amphibia

A

frogs, toads, salamanders

87
Q

reptilia

A

turtles, birds, snakes, lizards

88
Q

mammalia

A

rodents, carnivored, primates, ungulates, etc

89
Q

the greater the resemblance between two species-

A

the more recently they diverged from a common ancestor

90
Q

phylogeny

A

a hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among a set of organisms

91
Q

ancestral and derived

A

the time of the apperance certain traits in evolutionary history

92
Q

ancestral

A

-plesiomorphic

-found in the earliest member of the lineage

93
Q

derived

A

-apomorphic

-found in later members of the lineage

-a derived trait is changed from the ancestral form

94
Q

derived characters

A

-synapomorphies

-traits that are shared by two or more groups of taxa, and that originated in their common ancestor

95
Q

shared, ancestral characters states are called

A

symplesiomorphies

96
Q

a character that is exhibied by a single taxon only is called-

A

an autapomorphy

these characters are not shared and are therefore not useful in generating evolutionary trees

97
Q

homologous structures

A

structures that are similar in different organisms because of a shared ancestry

result from divergent evolution

homologous = descended from the same primitive structure

(forarms from humans, bats, and birds are homologous cuz they are derived from an ancestor that had the basic forelimb plan)

98
Q

anologous

A

structures that performm the same function without being present in a common ancestor

(body shape of a shark and dolphin)

99
Q

how do organisms come to resemble one another if they were not derived from a common ancestral character?

A

convergent evolution

-species from different evolutionary lineages may have similar ecological roles, and antural selection then drives analogous adaptations

100
Q

sister taxa

A

-groups that share a common ancestor and are more related to each other than to other groups

101
Q

parsimony

A

the principle we use to decide between several hypotheses

102
Q

cladistics

A

a method of determining evolutionary relationships by analyzing the features they share

-differences between lineages start to accumulate once lineages have separated. then many shared, homologous features should indicate a recent common ancestor and a high degree of relatedness

103
Q

a phylogenetic tree obtained via cladistics is termed a-

A

cladogram

104
Q

homoplasy

A

a collective name for a series of conditions that violate the assumptions of cladistic analyses

cladistics makes the assumption that species share derived characters because they share a common ancestor that had those specific derived characters, however, sometimes convergences occur and there are independent orgins of a feature in unrelated lineages

cladistic analysis assumes that if a species does not have a derived character, it is cuz its most recent ancestor diverged before that derived character originated

sometimes lineages have reversals

105
Q

reversals arise when-

A

a lineage has exhibited a derived character at some point in its evolutionary history, but that charcter reverts to an ancestral state

106
Q

polarizing characters

A

the process of determining which character states are plesiomorphic and which are apomorphic

-if an ingroup taxon possesses the same charcter state as the outgroup has the ancestral/ plesiomorphic condition for that character state and it is assigned a zero

if it instead has a different state for a given character relative to the outgroup, it has the apomorphic (derived) conditin for that state and it is assigned a one

107
Q

tree length (TL)

A

thecriterion used by the maximum parsiomony method to search for the best tree

defined as the sum of the minimum numbers of substitutions over all sites for the given topology

a sum of the number of times each character is mapped onto a tree

108
Q

consistency index (CI)

A

a tree statistic that measures the number of times a single character changes

CI = total number of characters used in the data set/ TL

ideally, we are looking for a tree with character changes appearing only once

A CI lower than one indicates that homoplasy exists somewhere in the tree

109
Q

character mapping

A

occurs when a character state change is mapped between the ancestor (node) that has one state, and the descendent that has another state

usually a mark

110
Q

monophyletic groups or clades

A

-groups that contain the most recent ancestor and all of the descendants

Bio lab exam (3 decks)

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