EXAM 1 Flashcards

Question

Describe the functions of the Parasympathetic division

Answer 1

sub-division of Autonomic system when the brain sends signals to the glands and controls the non immediate/ danger related body functions, "rest and digestion"

Answer 2

Neurons: basic unit of a neuron system, communicate with other neurons via chemical signals Types Sensory (afferent): detect information from physical world and pass that information to brain * Somatosensory nerves provide information from the skin and muscles. * Motor (efferent): direct muscles to contract or relax * Interneurons: communicate between sensory and motor neurons

Answer 3

Dendrites: are short, branchlike appendages that detect chemical signals from neighboring neurons cell body: the information received via the dendrites from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated. Axon: Once the incoming information from many other neurons has been integrated in the cell body, electrical impulses are transmitted along a long, narrow outgrowth Myelin sheath: A fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon. Node of Ranvier: Small gaps of exposed axon between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials take place. Terminal Buttons: At the end of each axon are knoblike structures Synapse: The site where chemical communication occurs between neurons

Answer 4

Neurons transmit information through electrical and chemical signals in the nervous system STEPS: 1) receives signals from other neurons through its dendrites 2) signal triggers action potential, action potential travels along the axon 3) action potential reaches the end of the axon, terminal button. Then, release of neurotransmitters, chemical messengers, into the synaptic cleft, 4)neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron

Answer 5

Agonists and antagonists are substances that affect the activity of neurotransmitters by binding to their receptors on the postsynaptic cell. Agonists increase the effect of a neurotransmitter, while antagonists decrease or block it.

Answer 6

Cerebral cortex: the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors

Answer 7

Regions of the cerebral cortex—at the front of the brain—important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex

Answer 8

located in the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.

Answer 9

located in the frontal lobe The primary motor cortex includes neurons that project directly to the spinal cord to move the body’s muscles For example, the left hemisphere controls the right arm, whereas the right hemisphere controls the left arm

Answer 10

Located in cerebral hemispheres The left hemisphere receives touch information from the right side of the body, and the right hemisphere receives touch information from the left side of the body.

Answer 11

a strip in the front part of the lobe that runs along the central fissure from the top of the brain down the sides processing stomatic sensations where the parietal lobe touch information gets sent

Answer 12

hold the primary auditory cortex, the brain region responsible for hearing. At the intersection of the temporal and occipital lobes is the fusiform face area.

Answer 13

In Temporal cortex hold the primary auditory cortex, the brain region responsible for hearing.

Answer 14

At the intersection of the temporal and occipital lobes is the fusiform face area. visualcortexes how we see and interprite visuals

Answer 15

the part of the brain that processes visual information from the eyes in the occupational lobe

Answer 16

is a part of the cerebral cortex control taste, pain, and empathy (insula); relay of sensory information (the thalamus); vital functions (the hypothalamus); memories (the hippocampus); threat and fear (the amygdala); and the planning and production of movement and reward circuitry (the basal ganglia).

Answer 17

In Insula sensory information (the thalamus)

Answer 18

In insula relay of sensory information (the thalamus)

Answer 19

In Insula vital functions (the hypothalamus)

Answer 20

In Insula memories (the hippocampus)

Answer 21

In insula threat and fear (the amygdala)

Answer 22

In insula the planning and production of movement and reward circuitry (the basal ganglia).

Answer 23

quality of the brain, enables change when exposed to experience or injury most plasticity when we are babies

Answer 24

Endocrine glands produce and release chemical substancesto communicate to the nervous system

Answer 25

One’s moment-to-moment subjective experience of the world. qualities: *Internal and subjective * Involves sensory input * Associated with brain activity * Can be manipulated, contain errors * Varies from person to person * Limited, selective

Answer 26

* go hand and hand *Attention selects what enters your limited consciousness * What are you focusing on

Answer 27

Automatic processing refers to cognitive activities that are relatively fast and require few cognitive resources. unconscious processes are executed automatically, in response to certain stimulus conditions. (you continue to breath when you are sleeping)

Answer 28

Concentrative or Mindfulness * Health benefits: * Improved blood pressure, cholesterol level in heart patients * Less anxiety, more brain activity consistent with + emotional state after 8 week meditation course * long term practice may change brain

Answer 29

highly focused attention that lasts a long time. You concentrate on something so hard that you lose track of everything else going on around you Bad:hyperfocus is thought to result from abnormally low levels of dopamine, a neurotransmitter that is particularly active in the brain’s frontal lobes, unmanagement , hard to "shift gears Good: you can consentrate get something done

Answer 30

Losing yourself in an activity * Physical exertion * Spiritual transcendence * Flow * Flow is absorbing and satisfying * “Just right” challenge

Answer 31

Hypnosis: A social interaction during which a person, responding to suggestions, experiences changes in memory, perception, and/or voluntary action. Qualities to make hypnosis more effective: being focused, imaginative, easily absorbed, and willing to participate. Theories: *sociocognitive theory of hypnosis, hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave * neodissociation theory of hypnosis acknowledges the importance of social context to hypnosis, but it views the hypnotic state as an altered state

Answer 32

1~ REM “Paradoxical sleep”, dreaming- theta waves 2 ~ sleep spindles, K-complex slow wave sleep ~ Delt waves

Answer 33

Functions: restoration, avoiding danger at certain times of the day, and facilitation of learning. Theories *Restoration: This theory suggests that sleep is necessary for repairing and restoring the physiological and mental functions that are depleted during wakefulness. * circadian rhythm theory: sleep has evolved to keep animals quiet and inactive during times of the day when there is the greatest danger, usually when it is dark. *facilitation of learning: correlation between strong sleep and performance. Both slow-wave sleep and REM sleep appear to be important for learning to take place.

Answer 34

1.Stimulants ~ Increase behavioral and mental activity, Dopamine 2. Depressants ~ Decrease behavioral and mental activity, GABA 3. Opioids/narcotics ~ Reduce the experience of pain, bring pleasure, Endorphins 4. Hallucinogens/Psychedelics ~ Alter thoughts or perceptions, serotonin

Answer 35

STEPS 1- stimulus appears 2- sensory receptors detect the stimulus 3- sensory coding: sensory is transduced 4 - perception: is the brain’s further processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory information. Perception results in our conscious experience of the world.

Answer 36

Sensation and perception are integrated into experience Sensation: The detection of physical stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain. Perception: The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain.

Answer 37

the translation of physical stimuli received by sensory receptors into neural signals that the brain can interpret

Answer 38

bottom-up processing: Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus. top-down processing: The interpretation of sensory information based on knowledge, expectations, and past experiences.

Answer 39

Absolute threshold: minimum amount of stimulation to experience a sensation half of the time * Difference threshold: minimum amount of change required to detect a difference between two stimuli * Weber’s law: just noticeable difference based on proportion of the original stimulus rather than on a fixed amount of difference 10

Answer 40

Signal detection theory: detection of a stimulus requires a judgment—it is not an all-or-nothing process * Response bias: participant’s tendency to report or not report detecting the signal in an ambiguous trial * Relative trade-off of more false alarms versus more misses depends upon situation * When is it better to not detect something that IS there vs. detect something that ISN’T there? “Yes, it’s there” -> stimulus is present or stimulus is not present “No, it’s nothing” -> stimulus is present or stimulus is not present

Answer 41

1 Physical stimulus: light waves reflect through the cornea and ente3r the eye through the pupil. the lens focuses the light on the retina 2 Sensation: sensory receptors in the retina, called rods and cones, detect the light waves 3 Transduction: rods and cones convert the light into signals. Signals are processed by ganglion cells, which generate action potential 4 Perception: signals from each visual field are processed on one side of the retina. travel along the optic nerve through the thalamus and are processed in visual cortex

Answer 42

Sound waves → outer ear → eardrum (middle ear, where the hammer, anvil, and stirrup vibrate) → oval window (cochlea, in the inner ear) → basilar membrane → hair cells (primary receptors) → auditory nerve → thalamus → auditory cortex Noise meter

Answer 43

Sound wave: pattern of changes in air pressure during a period of time * Amplitude and volume

Answer 44

emporal coding: low frequency sounds, firing rates of cochlear hairs = frequency of sound wave * Place coding: at higher frequencies, sound encoded by location of cochlear hair along basilar membrane

Answer 45

the auditory nerve carries the neural signal first to the thalamus and then to the primary auditory cortex(the part of the temporal lobe that processes auditory information in humans and many other vertebrates) which processes perception of the sound.

Answer 46

taste buds: Sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste. taste receptors: in taste buds on tongue/mouth, which transmit stimuli to the cranial nerve through the thalamus

Answer 47

smell steps 1) stimuli: when you smell something, odorants pass into your nose and nasal cavity 2)Olfactory receptors, in the olfactory epithelium, transmit the signal to the olfactory bulb, which transmitters 3)along the olfactory nerve to areas of the cortex and amygdala

Answer 48

Information about whether a smell is pleasant or unpleasant is processed in the brain’s prefrontal cortex, which is also involved with emotions and memory

Answer 49

tactile stimulation: Anything that makes contact with our skin provides Process: The haptic receptors for both temperature and pressure are sensory neurons that reach to the skin’s outer layer. Their long axons enter the central nervous system by way of spinal or cranial nerves.

Answer 50

2 kinds of nerve fibers translate pain: * fast fibers for sharp, immediate pain; activated by strong physical pressure and temperature extremes * slow fibers for chronic, dull, steady pain; activated by chemical changes in tissue when skin is damaged 28

Answer 51

gate control theory of pain: we experience pain when pain receptors are activated and a neural “gate” in the spinal cord allows the signals through to the brain

Answer 52

Early 1900s - Ivan Pavlov studies reflexes * Salivation in response bowl, person who provides food is learned * Research of classic (Pavlovian) conditioning * 1910s/20s * Edward Thorndike and the law of effect * John Watson, Rosalie Rayner, and Mary Cover Jones apply principles of conditioning to develop, resolve phobias * Watson published Behaviorism Mid 1900s - B. F. Skinner sees behaviors as instrumental * Studied animal behavior in lab setting using “operant chamber” * 1960s - Social learning * Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll studies * Lev Vygotsky and sociocultural theory of cognitive development through interactions

Answer 53

learning to adjust responses to reoccurring stimuli Habituation and Sensitization

Answer 54

occurs when you gain new information after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event. habitution senseitization

Answer 55

Habituation leads to a decrease in a behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus. Habituation is unlike sensory adaptation in that you can still perceive the stimuli. You just do not respond to them because you have learned that they are not important. Habituation decreases a behavioral response,

Answer 56

Sensitization leads to an increase in a behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus. sensitization increases a behavioral response.

Answer 57

Learning the relationship between 2 stimuli Classical conditioning & Operant conditioning

Answer 58

To learn by association means to form connections between new information and existing knowledge. For example, if you want to remember that the capital of France is Paris, you might associate it with the Eiffel Tower, which is a famous landmark in Paris. Learning by association can help you recall information more easily and effectively.

Answer 59

acquisition The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Answer 60

extinction A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 61

spontaneous recovery When a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus.

Answer 62

stimulus generalization- Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response.

Answer 63

stimulus discrimination A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 64

when we learn that a stimulus predicts another stimulus A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response. A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place. A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

Answer 65

The founder of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. His groundbreaking work in this field revolutionized our understanding of learning and behavior. An observational of salivation: the digestive system of a dog

Answer 66

conditioned stimulus (CS) A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place.

Answer 67

unconditioned stimulus (US) A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning.

Answer 68

conditioned response (CR) A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned.

Answer 69

unconditioned response (UR) A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex.

Answer 70

. Second-order conditioning is a form of learning in which a stimulus that was previously neutral becomes associated with another stimulus that already produces a conditioned response.

Answer 71

The Rescorla-Wagner model is a mathematical model of classical conditioning, which explains how the strength of the association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) changes over time.

Answer 72

Prediction error: the difference between the expected and actual outcomes * A positive prediction error strengthens the association between the CS and the US. * A negative prediction error weakens the association between the CS and the US. 19

Answer 73

classical conditioning: association of stimulus and an involuntary response Operant conditioning: association of voluntary action and consequence

Answer 74

reinforcer A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated. punishment A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Answer 75

positive and negative reinforcement

Answer 76

positives and negative punishment

Answer 77

Positive means something is added. Negative means something is removed.

Answer 78

Operant conditioning: A learning process where an action’s consequences determine how likely it is to be repeated in the future The longer the delay between the action and its consequence, the worse the learning

Answer 79

*continuous reinforcement A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. *partial reinforcement A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently. *partial-reinforcement extinction effect The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement.

Answer 80

Parenting Use of punishment * Most likely to be effective IF reasonable, unpleasant, and applied immediately * Issue of failure to offset reinforcement for undesired behavior * More support for grounding and time outs, compared to physical punishment (discouraged!) * Use of rewards * + reinforcement most effective for increasing desired behaviors * Can encourage bonding Addiction Classical conditioning also plays an important role in drug addiction. * Environmental cues associated with drugs can induce cravings * Unsatisfied cravings could lead to withdrawal * Drug cues à activation of prefrontal cortex and regions of the limbic system, expectation that drug high will follow * Siegel (2006) believed that exposing addicts to drug cues was an important part of treating addiction

Answer 81

Dopamine release sets the value of a rewarding unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning or a rewarding reinforcer in operant conditioning.

Answer 82

Social learning is a powerful adaptive tool for humans Humans do not need to personally experience a stimulus or event to learn that it is good or bad or should be approached or avoided.

Answer 83

Observational learning: models Vicarious learning Instructional: *Unique to humans * Explain link between action and consequence * Developmentally appropriate * Scaffolding * Zones of proximal development

Answer 84

imitating behaviors

Answer 85

Seeing the consequences (rewards, punishments) of an action by watching other

Answer 86

Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information.

Answer 87

explicit memory Memory that is consciously retrieved. ex.names and locations of different countries on a map, or family members birthdays

Answer 88

explicit memory Episodic memory consists of a person’s memory of past experiences that can be identified as occurring at a time and place.

Answer 89

Under Explicit memory Semantic memory is knowledge of concepts, categories, and facts independent of personal experience

Answer 90

implicit memory Memory that is expressed through responses, actions, or reactions.

Answer 91

Implicit procedural memory A type of implicit memory that involves skills and habits.

Answer 92

Medial temporal lobes: involved in formation of both episodic and semantic memories * Hippocampus: necessary for forming new episodic memories but not for retrieving older episodic memories * Long-term storage of episodic memories involves brain regions engaged in perception, processing, and analysis of learned material * Hippocampus helps form links between different storage sites, directs the gradual strengthening of connections

Answer 93

Encoding: Processing information so that it can be stored * Storage: Retention of encoded representations over time * Retrieval: Act of recalling stored information when needed

Answer 94

1. Schemas - Cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, and understand information. 2. Chunking - Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember. 3. Mnemonics - Learning aids or strategies that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues. 4. Priming - A facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus. 5. Serial position effect (primacy effect, recency effect)- The finding that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, such that items presented early or late in the list are remembered better than those in the middle.

Answer 95

1. Sensory memory - A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form. 2. Short-term or working memory - A limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use. 3. Long-term memory - The storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever.

Answer 96

Any stimulus that promotes memory recall.

Answer 97

encoding specificity principle: The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience.

Answer 98

prospective memory- Remembering to do something at some future time. retrieval-induced forgetting- Impairment of the ability to recall an item in the future after retrieving a related item from long-term memory. retrieval cues could act as reminders

Answer 99

1. Forgetting - memory temporally or permanently gone 2. Persistence - The continual recurrence of unwanted memories 3. Memory bias - The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes. 4. Source misattribution - Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory. 5. Suggestibility - The development of biased memories from misleading information

Answer 100

Analogic representations – display physical characteristics of concept.For instance, “A is to B as C is to D” is an analogy because in the same way that A comes right before B in the alphabet, C comes right before D. * Symbolic representations – abstract, do not correspond to physical traits. For example, the word violin stands for a musical instrument (FIGURE 8.1b). There are no correspondences between what a violin looks like, what it sounds like, and the letters or sounds that make up the word violin

Answer 101

i. Prototype model - A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category ii. Exemplar model - A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples (exemplars); together they form the concept and determine category membership. iii. Schemas - Rely on generalizations about concepts and categories iv. Scripts - A schema that directs behavior over time within a situation v. Stereotypes - Cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups.

Answer 102

“decision making” A cognitive process that results in the selection of a course of action or belief from several options. “problem solving" Finding a way around an obstacle to reach a goal.

Answer 103

*Shortcuts that reduce cognitive load of decision making * Types: * Relative comparisons * Anchoring: referring to a reference point that is the first piece of information or information that comes most quickly to mind * Framing: being influenced by the relative emphasis on potential losses or potential gains * Availability heuristic: deciding something based on the answer that most easily comes to mind * Representativeness heuristic: associating a person/object in a category if they are like the category prototype

Answer 104

i. Integral emotions- One way emotion can influence decisions is by providing an internal signal about the value of different choice options. If you are deciding between going to a nightclub or a poetry reading, there are many factors you could consider. ii. Incidental emotions- influence of incidental affective states on decision making was found with the endowment effect. their incidental feelings had less influence over their judgments. iii. Affective states - affective states that are completely unrelated to choices can also bias decisions. decision making was found with the endowment effect. The endowment effect is the tendency to value things we own more than we would pay to buy them

Answer 105

Ability to perform high-level mental processes * Average score across various domains reflects overall intelligence * Variation in specific skills (s) expected (Spearman) * g is comprised of fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell) * Fluid: ability to process information, understand relationships, think logically * Crystallized: knowledge built through experience and ability to apply accumulated knowledge

Answer 106

ability to process information, understand relationships, think logically

Answer 107

knowledge built through experience and ability to apply accumulated knowledge

Answer 108

Gardner and unique intelligence of each person * Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence * Analytical * Creative * Practical

Answer 109

Triarchic theory- Robert Sternberg (1999) proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence, which suggests that there are three types of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical *Analytical- is similar to that measured by psychometric tests—being good at problem solving, completing analogies, figuring out puzzles, and other academic challenges * Creative - involves the ability to gain insight and solve novel problems—to think in new and interesting ways * Practical- refers to dealing with everyday tasks, such as knowing whether a parking space is large enough for your vehicle, being a good judge of people, being an effective leader, and so on.

Answer 110

*Managing own emotions * Using emotions to effectively guide thoughts, behaviors * Recognizing other’s emotions * Understanding emotional communication

Answer 111

The overall quantitative measures of a child’s intelligence relative to that of other children of same age IQ = (Mental Age)/(Chronological Age) * 100

EXAM 1 Flashcards

(136 cards)