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Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe how the brain begins to mature early in development.

A
  • Brain regions learn to communicate with one another
    through synaptic connections
  • Brain circuits mature through myelination
  • Synaptic pruning: used synaptic connections
    preserved, unused connections decay and disappear
  • At birth, brain can support basic motor reflexes
  • Further brain development necessary for cognitive
    development
  • By age 4, the brain is about 80% of the adult size
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2
Q

What major factors or environmental experiences can impede typical brain
development (e.g., teratogens, lack of stimulation)?

A

Teratogens: agents that harm the embryo or fetus (drugs, bacteria)

Lack of stimulation
* Synaptic connections strengthen as they are used
* Caregivers are a primary source of interaction

poverty is associated with environmental risk factors

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3
Q

Preferential-looking technique

A

test visual acuity in infants.

developmental psychologists observed infants’ reactions to patterns of black-and-white stripes as well as patches of gray

the researchers know the infant can distinguish between the two and finds one more interesting

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4
Q

Habituation technique

A

A way to study how infants categorize a series of objects, such as faces, based on the principle that after looking at objects that are all from the same category, babies will look for a longer time at objects from a new category.

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5
Q

Strange-situation test
3

A

study attachments

child’s reaction to when the caregiver leaves reveals attachment style

Secure: child is distress when attachment leaves and calms down/seeks comfort when the attachment comes back

insecure/avoidant: not in distress when the caregiver leaves and avoids the caregiver/attachment when they come back

insecure/Ambivalent : child is unconsolably upset when the caregiver leaves, and child both seeks and avoids comfort from the attachment

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6
Q

Dynamic systems theory

A
  • Development is a self-organizing process
  • New, more complex behaviors and abilities emerge through
    interaction between person, culture, and the environment
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7
Q

When participating in the strange-situation study, a child is not distressed when the caregiver leaves and ignores the caregiver when they return. Which attachment style is exhibited?
A. secure
B. insecure/ambivalent
C. insecure/avoidant

A

insecure/avoidant

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8
Q

How do the preferential looking technique and habituation technique give insights into the minds of infants?

Infants can innately nod their heads for “yes.”

Infants will cry more when shown unfamiliar objects.

Infants will look longer at objects that they perceive to be unfamiliar.

Infants can innately shake their heads for “no.”

A

Infants will look longer at objects that they perceive to be unfamiliar.

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9
Q

Outline Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

A

Schemes: assimilation and accommodation

4 stages
* Sensorimotor (birth-2): present-focused, reflexive, object permanence develops

  • Preoperational (2-7 years): symboli representation of objects, first-person perspective,
    struggle with law of conservation of quantity
  • Concrete operational (7-12 years): perform mental manipulation of concrete objects,
    understand conservation of quantity, some awareness of others’ views
  • Formal Operational (12+): abstract thought, critical thinking and applying logic
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10
Q

What is “theory of mind”?

A

ability to understand that other people have mental states that will influence their behavior.

Theory of mind typically develops by 15 months and is related to development of the frontal lobes.

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11
Q

Outline and describe Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral reasoning.

What are the major criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

3 levels
Preconventional: priority on self-interest and
satisfaction with outcome

Conventional: rule-following, approval-seeking

Postconventional: consideration of abstract
principles and pursuit of the greater good

Theories of moral reasoning have been criticized for their gender and culture bias and for ignoring emotional aspects of moral decisions.

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12
Q

what is Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.

A

proposed a theory of human development that emphasized age-related, culture-neutral psychosocial challenges and their effects on social functioning across the life span.

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13
Q

What major identities further develop or solidify across adolescence?

A

Crisis:
Identity versus role confusion

Resolution: By exploring different social roles, adolescents develop a sense of identity.

  • Physical appearance and transforming self-image
  • More sophisticated cognitive skills à introspection
  • More societal pressure to prepare for the future à exploration of boundaries
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14
Q

What are major life transitions that may occur in adulthood, and how do they impact happiness later in life?

A

Transitions:
-seeking interpersonal connections/marriage
-parenthood
-creating meanings
-physical changes:
*20 – 40 y/o: decline in muscle mass, bone density, eyesight, hearing
* Better shape during early adulthood à fewer significant declines with ag

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15
Q

What factors help in the maintenance of mental skills as individuals age?

A

Cognitive changes
-Frontal lobes (working memory, other cognitive skills) tend to shrink with age
-Slowing of mental processing speed
-memory slows

intelligence changes
* Fluid intelligence tends to peak in early adulthood, decline steadily as we age.
* Crystallized intelligence usually increases throughout life

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16
Q

what are the social attributions related to the adult transition of marriage

A

Overall associated with more happiness and joy, less
mental illnesses
* Unhappily married people are at greater risk for
poor health, death
* Most satisfied married people have sufficient
economic resources, share decision making, and
view marriage as a lifelong commitment

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17
Q

what is the happiness level associated with parenthood

A

it does not guarantee happiness

can bring happiness if both parent share the burden of raising the children equally

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18
Q

fluid intelligence

A

short term memory

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19
Q

crystalized intelligence

A

long term memory

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20
Q

secondary emotions

A

blends of primary emotions, feelings
about emotions, or culturally- specific emotions

  • remorse
  • guilt
  • shame
  • love
  • pride
  • contentment
  • jealousy
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21
Q

primary emotions

A

innate, adaptive, universal
* anger
* fear
* sadness
* disgust
* happiness
* surprise
* contempt

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22
Q

James-Lange

A

people perceive patterns of
bodily responses, and as a result then feel an emotion

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23
Q

Cannon-Bard

A

information about emotional
stimuli is sent to the cortex and the body at the same time, resulting in emotional experience and bodily reactions
* We experience 2 things at roughly the same time: emotion and physical
reaction

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24
Q

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor

A

a label applied to
physiological arousal results in the experience of an emotion

  • When we are aroused, we search for the source of arousal
  • Misattribution of arousal: when we misidentify the source of arousal
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25
Identify and describe strategies that can successfully and unsuccessfully regulate emotions?
Unsuccessful strategies include suppression and rumination. Successful strategies include changing the meaning of events, mental distancing, finding humor, refocusing attention, and distraction.
26
What factors impact how we convey and perceive emotions?
Eyes and mouth important for conveying emotion Context can alter how we perceive emotion
27
“display rules"
tell us which emotions are suitable to given situations
28
“ideal affect”
types of emotions that cultures value and encourage people to display
29
motivation
a process that energizes, guides, and maintains behavior toward a goal 1. Energizing: Activate behavior 2. Directive: Guide behavior 3. Persistence: Maintain behavior 3. Differ in strength
30
drives
motivate us to fulfill (biological) needs * A psychological state of arousal that compels an organism to satisfy a need * Drive increase in proportion to the amount of deprivation * Habit à formed when a behavior consistently reduces a drive * We strive for homeostasis
31
intrinsic motivation
when we perform an activity because of the value or pleasure associated * Pleasure: state of enjoyment or satisfaction
32
extrinsic motivation
when we perform an activity to move toward achieving external goals * Incentives: external objects or external goals, rather than internal drives, that motivate behaviors
33
how to set reasonable goals
challenging and specific but not overly difficult measurable, realistic, and time bound
34
personal factors to assist goal achievement
Self-regulation: changing behavior to meet personal goals Delayed gratification: putting off a reward for a future time Self efficacy: Expectation that efforts will lead to success Achievement motivation: desire to pursue excellence Grit: determination to achieve goals despite setbacks
35
three aspects of the biopsychosocial model of health
biopsychosocial model: An approach to psychological science that integrates biological factors, psychological processes, and social-contextual influences in shaping human mental life and behavior.
36
f biological and social factors that can affect health and disease?
37
how to determine their personal risk for accidents and illnesses?
38
What are some health promoting behaviors?
nutrition exercise no smoking
39
How do the social determinants of health affect the health outcomes and behaviors of different social groups (e.g., race, immigration status, socioeconomic status)?
Beliefs and behaviors about health are determined by the norms and conditions of our cultures and communities. Societal factors such as how public environments are structured and how much money a country can dedicate to health care can affect health for the better or the worse Different cultures and lifestyles also contribute to health differences. For example, the adoption of more Westernized behaviors, such as eating junk food and engaging in less physical activity, in countries like India and China has led to increases in diseases related to obesity, such as diabetes We learn health behaviors from others We care what people think about our health behaviors We want to meet expectations
40
immigrant paradox
The pattern among immigrant communities in which foreign-born immigrants to the United States have better health than people in later generations do.
40
general adaptation syndrome
General adaptation syndrome: pattern of responses to stress with three stages * Alarm: emergency reaction, prepares body to fight or flee * Resistance: body prepares for longer, sustained defense from the stressor * Exhaustion: various physiological and immune systems fail
40
How do racism and racial bias in the American healthcare system contribute to health disparities between White and Black Americans
Differences in health outcomes, such as illness or death rates, between groups of people * Racial/ethnic groups * Generation of immigration * Socioeconomic status health gradient
40
"stress" +subtypes
unpleasant response, involving anxiety or tension, to a stressor * Distress: stress caused by negative events * Eustress: stress caused by positive events
41
allostatic load
The cumulative “wear and tear” on biological systems, including the stress, digestive, immune, cardiovascular, and hormonal systems, among others, after repeated or chronic stressful events.
42
How are primary and secondary appraisals connected?
Primary appraisals: decide if the stimulus is stressful, benign, or irrelevant Secondary appraisals: evaluate response options, choose coping behaviors
43
What are the benefits of generating cognitive appraisals?
lowers negative emotions such as sadness and anxiety and increases positive emotions associated with well-being
44
What are different types of coping behaviors 3
Problem-focused coping: Directly confront or minimize stressor Emotion-focused coping: Prevent emotional response to a stressor Anticipatory coping: Happens before the onset of a future stressor -Can be problem or emotion-focused
45
How is having a positive effect related to a longer life?
Promotes well-being Emphasizes the strengths and virtues that help people thrive * 3 components of happiness * Positive emotion (affect) and pleasure * Engagement (social support, flow) * Meaning (spirituality, purpose, transcendenc
46
Provide examples of how social support is associated with good health.
Lower risk of death associated with having more friends “Buffered” against stress, more grateful and less lonely
47
How can maintaining a sense of spirituality impact well-being?
-Greater feelings of well-being and “buffer” against stress -Social and physical support provided by faith communities -Supportive of healthy behaviors (e.g., avoiding alcohol, tobacco) -Purpose, meaning
48
In group
* Ingroup favoritism: tendency to evaluate favorably and privilege ingroup members more than outgroup members * Even when groups are arbitrary (minimal group paradigm)
49
outgroup
Outgroup homogeneity effect: tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members * Sometimes less human (dehumanization)
50
risky-shift effect
: groups often make riskier decisions than individuals
51
Group polarization
Group polarization: process by which initial attitudes of groups become more extreme over time
52
group think
* Groupthink: tendency to make a bad decision to preserve group cohesion; especially likely when group is under pressure, is facing external threats, and is biased in a particular direction
53
how to reduce group think
To prevent groupthink, leaders must refrain from expressing their opinions too strongly at the beginning of discussions
54
social facilitation
the presence of others generally improves performance
55
social loafing
tendency to work less hard in a group than when working alone
56
normative influence
conforming to fit in with the group
57
informational influence
conforming when we assume that the behavior of others represents the correct way to respond
58
Milgram’s obedience experiments
people may inflict harm on others if ordered to do so by an authority. Individuals who are concerned about others’ perceptions of them are more likely to be obedient. Obedience decreases with greater distance from the authority
59
obedience
Following the orders of a person of authority
60
compliance
The tendency to agree to do things requested by others.
61
Identify the three ways of inducing compliance and their influence method.
* Foot in the door: agree to small request à more likely to comply with large, undesirable request * Door in the face: refused a large request à more likely to agree to a small request * Low-balling: agreed to buy a product à agree to pay any increased cost added to product
62
Define Prosocial behaviors why are humans prosocial
Altruism: providing help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so Why are humans prosocial? * Empathy * Selfish motives, e.g., to relieve one’s negative mood * Innate desire to help others * Inclusive fitness
63
Antisocial behaviors And why are humans anti social?
* Aggression: behavior that involves the intention to harm another * Why are humans antisocial? * Biological factors (MAOA gene, Testosterone hormone) * Individual factors (rejection, pain, fear) * Cultural factors (norms like “culture of honor”)
64
bystander effect
4 reasons for bystander intervention effect: * Diffusion of responsibility * Fear of making social blunders * Anonymity * Cost benefit analysis of helping
65
If you are in danger and need assistance in a crowded place, what can you do to improve the likelihood of bystander intervention?
Communicate that you are in danger to reduce the ambiguity of the situation, and recruit specific individuals to help you to reduce diffusion of responsibility and anonymity
66
What are some of the major agents of socialization, and how do they influence attitudes?
Attitudes: people’s evaluations of objects, of events, or of ideas Attitudes influenced by * Negative bias, personal relevance, direct experience, specificity * Mere exposure effect: greater familiarity with a stimulus à greater liking * Attitude accessibility: ease or difficulty in retrieving an attitude from memory
67
explicit and implicit attitudes
* Explicit: a person can report them * Implicit: influence a person’s feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
68
cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance can lead to attitude (or behavior) change Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort that results from holding two conflicting beliefs, values, or attitudes. People can resolve the dissonance by inflating the importance of the group and their commitment to it
69
persuasion
The active and conscious effort to change an attitude through the transmission of a message. considering the source, content, and the receiver
70
stereotypes
Stereotypes are cognitive schemas that allow for fast, easy processing of social information.
71
Why do stereotypes so often lead to prejudice and discrimination?
Illusory correlations cause people to see relationships that do not exist, and they result from confirmatory bias toward selecting information that supports stereotypes. Prejudice: negative feelings, opinions, beliefs associated with a stereotype Discrimination: differential treatment of people due to prejudice
72
Explain the stereotype threat effect.
Fear or concern about confirming negative stereotypes related to one’s own group, which in turn impairs performance on a task.
73
personal factors that influence interpersonal attraction and friendships
-Proximity – being nearby, having more contact -Familiarity and the mere exposure effect -Similarity – sharing beliefs, values, interests, backgrounds, traits -Matching principle -Admirable others -Least likable: dishonesty, insincerity, cold -Most likeable: kindness, dependability, trustworthiness -Attractive others -Physical attractiveness and symmetry -Status
74
personality
Definition: A person’s characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors -Product of genetic variation -influenced by multiple genes, which interact with the environment to produce general dispositions -cognitive, emotional patterns
75
personality traits
A pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that is relatively consistent over time and across situations.
76
long term effect of childhood temperements
Temperaments are biologically based personality tendencies five higher-order personality traits: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. Adulthood - temperaments are early shows of personality traits
77
factors that contribute to personality development
Traits reflect our development and can be influenced by life events * Mean-level changes: show impact of life events on personality traits * With age: * Less neurotic, extraverted, open to new experiences * More agreeable, conscientious
78
Idiographic approaches
person-centered approaches to studying personality; focus is on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons
79
Nomothetic approaches
Nomothetic approaches: approaches to assessing personality that focus on how common characteristics vary from person to person
80
Trait approach
Trait approach * How individuals differ in personality dispositions * Allport’s catalogue of nearly 18,000 personality traits * Cattell’s factor analysis identified 16 basic dimensions (e.g., intelligence, sensitivity, dominance, self-reliance) * Five-factor theory * Openness to experience * Conscientiousness * Extraversion * Agreeableness * Neuroticism
81
Humanistic approach
Humanistic approach * Emphasize how people seek to fulfill their potential through greater self-understanding * Personal experience, belief systems, uniqueness narratives, and inherent goodness * Rogers à unconditional positive regard to promote healthy self-esteem and to become fully functioning
82
Cognitive and behavioral theories
Cognitive and behavioral theories * Rotter’s expectancy-value approach * Expectancy: Will something happen? * Value: How much do I care? * Locus of control: personal beliefs about how much control people have over outcomes in their lives (internal, external)
83
interactionism
the theory that behavior is determined jointly by situations and underlying dispositions
84
locus of control + subtypes
* Locus of control: personal beliefs about how much control people have over outcomes in their lives -internal: believe they bring about their own rewards -external: believe rewards result from forces beyond their control
85
strong vs weak situations
situations strength in influencing persoanlity strong constrain personality (e.g., elevators, religious services, job interviews) weak do not constrain personality (e.g., parks, bars, one’s house
86
how does personality traits stabilize
With age: * Less neurotic, extraverted, open to new experiences * More agreeable, conscientious
87
self-concept
Self-concept: everything you know and believe about yourself
88
self-schema
Self-schema: the cognitive aspect of the self-concept; a network of interconnected knowledge about the self
89
broad categorize of disorders
* Emotional disturbance * Anxiety disorders * Mood disorders (depression, bipolar) * Thought disorders * Schizophrenia * Maladaptive behavior * Obsessive compulsive disorder * Eating disorders * Addiction * Trauma and stressor-related disorders * Post-traumatic stress disorder
90
diathesis-stress model
: a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event
91
comorbidity
* People rarely fit neatly into precise diagnostic categories * Many disorders occur together * Despite this, the DSM-5 system treats these disorders as separat
92
p-factor
- Psychopathology reflects a common general factor - Higher scores on the p factor associated with more life impairment and a worsening of impairments over time
93
cognitive triad
Negative thoughts about self, situations, future
94
learned helplessness
when people feel unable to control events in their lives
95
attribution style
negative events refer to personal factors that are stable and global
96
Persist depressive disorder
form of depression not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder, longer duration
97
bipolar 1 vs 2
Bipolar l disorder: extremely elevated moods during manic episodes and, frequently, depressive episodes as well * Bipolar II disorder: a disorder characterized by alternating periods of extremely depressed and mildly elevated moods * Less extreme mood elevations are called hypomania
98
What are the five symptoms of Schizophrenia
* Delusions: false beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality * Hallucinations: false sensory perceptions, experienced without an external source * Disorganized speech: incoherent, frequently changing topics or saying strange/inappropriate things * Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior: acting in strange, unusual ways * Negative emotional symptoms
99
the biological vs environmental factors that can contribute to Schizophrenia?
Genetic - biological * Concordance rate of 50 percent for identical twins; 7–14 percent for fraternal * 3-4 times more likely to have rare mutations of DNA in brain development genes * Differences in brain structure and chemistry (e.g., larger ventricles, dopamine levels) Environmental component * Exposure to chronic stress (e.g., living in an urban area, dysfunctional family system) * Viral infection (e.g., maternal inflammation in 2nd trimester) * Heavy marijuana use in adolescence
100
what is OCD
* Characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive action * Obsessions: recurrent, intrusive, unwanted thoughts or ideas or mental images that increase anxiety * Compulsions: acts the person is driven to perform over and over that reduce anxiety
101
three types of eating disorders
* Anorexia nervosa - excessive fear of becoming fat and therefore restricting energy intake to obtain a significantly low body weight * Bulimia nervosa - alternation of dieting, binge eating, and purging * Binge eating disorder – pattern of binge eating (at least 1x/week, without purging) that causes significant distress
102
What is post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)?
-Involves frequent nightmares, intrusive thoughts, and flashbacks related to an earlier trauma * Characterized by hypervigilance and “inability to forget” Development * Environmental component – presence of traumatic event, absence of supports * Genetic component – differences in serotonin functioning
103
personality disorders
Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal make up the odd or eccentric cluster. Histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, and antisocial make up the dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster. Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive make up the anxious or fearful cluster. Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder is distinct from obsessive-compulsive disorder.
104
Psychodynamic Therapy
A form of therapy based on Freudian theory; it aims to help clients examine their needs, defenses, and motives as a way of understanding distress
105
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
A therapy that incorporates techniques from cognitive therapy and behavior therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors.
106
Systems Approach
seeing the individual as part of a larger context management approach
107
What are the categories of psychotropic medication? 3
* Anti-anxiety drugs: used to treat anxiety; commonly called tranquilizers * Antidepressants: used to treat depression\ Antipsychotics: used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis; also known as neuroleptics
108
clinical psychologist
Ph.D. or Psy.D. * skilled in working with individuals with mental illness
109
psychiatrist
* MD * can prescribe psychotropic drugs
110
counseling psychologist
Ph.D., Ed.D. * deals with adjustment problems that do not involve mental illness
111
What disorders are best treated with CBT and Exposure
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines aspects of cognitive and behavioral therapies. It is the most widely used and perhaps most effective treatment for many psychological disorders.
112
how is OCD Treated
* OCD is best treated with Exposure Response Prevention (ERP) (sometimes in combination with SSRIs)
113
How is schizophrenia treated?
* Antipsychotics: used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis; also known as neuroleptics * One side effect is tardive dyskinesia (involuntary twitching of muscles, especially in the neck and face
114
how is depression treated?
* Antidepressants: used to treat depression * monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors * tricyclics antidepressants * selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)

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