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1
Q

what is theory?

A

an explanation of observed regularities or patterns

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2
Q

what are the components of theory?

A

Definitions, Descriptions, Relational statements

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3
Q

Definitions

A

What are the key terms?

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4
Q

Descriptions

A

What are the characteristics?

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5
Q

Relational statements

A

How are the variables related?

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6
Q

Hypothesis

A

A proposed explanation for a phenomenon, or a conjecture about how certain variables are related

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7
Q

Axiom

A

A statement or proposition we take to be true without needing proof within the context of a particular system of logic or theory

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8
Q

What is epistemological research concerned with?

A

How is knowledge acquired?
What constitutes as knowledge?
How can we distinguish between knowledge and belief

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9
Q

What is ontological research concerned with?

A

What really exists?
Do social phenomena have an objective reality?
Is what passes for objectively real just mentally constructed?

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10
Q

What is objectivism?

A

An ontological perspective that suggests social phenomena have an objective reality outside of our perceptions.

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11
Q

What is constructionism?

A

Hard: reality is a set of mental constructs
Soft: social reality is marred by human interpretations

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12
Q

What is phenomenological research concerned with?

A

Human experiences as they are consciously perceived without any preconceived theoretical interpretations or frameworks

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13
Q

What is positivism?

A

An epistemological approach that follows natural science and uses empiricism to uncover social laws governing reality

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14
Q

How does positivism generate hypotheses?

A

Via deduction. It is scientific, not normative and therefore said hypotheses can be tested empirically and supported or rejected

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15
Q

What does empiricism posit?

A

Knowledge must be based on information gathered through senses

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16
Q

What is interpritivism?

A

An empathetic critique of positivism that views the social world from the POV of the actor

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17
Q

What is the goal of interpretivism?

A

Grasp the subjective meaning of people’s lives

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18
Q

What does interpretivism posit?

A

People interpret the reality of their own lives

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19
Q

What is symbolic interactionism?

A

An interpetivist perspective that focuses on the role of symbols and interactions in shaping identities and behaviours

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20
Q

What is critical theory?

A

-Both deductive and inductive
-Rejects the concept of value-free science
-Praxis: research should revolve around practice
-Political in nature

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21
Q

What are the interpretivist critiques of positivism?

A

-Natural sciences are limited in knowledge production of social world because it is created by individuals
-Uncovering social laws is less important than grasping subjective meaning of people’s lives
-Actions should be viewed from actor POV
-Positivism is not empathetic

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22
Q

What are critical theory critiques of positivism?

A

-Researchers should support those they study rather than attempt to be value neutral
-Knowledge should be used to change social reality, not just understand it
-Social research should be practice oriented

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23
Q

What are the 2 types of relational statements?

A

Deterministic, Probabilistic

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24
Q

What does a deterministic relational statement state?

A

The two variables will always go together in a particular way. “The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on it”

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25
What does a probabilistic relational statement state?
The two variables will go together with some degree of regularity but the relationship is not inevitable. "The likelihood of rain occurring tomorrow increases when atmospheric humidity levels rise"
26
What are the 3 types of theory?
Descriptive, Predictive, Explanatory
27
What are the properties of descriptive theory?
-Don't provide explanations/predictions -Identify patterns -Provide foundational knowledge to be built upon
28
What are the properties of predictive theory?
-Forecast future outcomes -Uses empirical data/stats -Predict trends
29
What are the properties of explanatory theory?
-Explain why certain phenomena occur and how they function -Examine underlying mechanisms/causes/processes
30
What are concepts?
Ideas/mental representations of points around which social research is conducted
31
What is conceptualization?
Defining abstract concepts in terms that can be measured/observed
32
What is operationalization?
Devising measures of a concept
33
What are dimensions?
Specific aspects or variables that are measured within a particular concept
34
What are indicators?
Representations of a concept Direct: reported income tax return as an indicator of wealth Indirect: absenteeism as an indicator of employee morale
35
What is the nominal definition of a concept?
A description that uses words
36
What is the operational definition of a concept?
The spelling out of operations a researcher must conduct to measure a concept
37
What is the process of inductive research?
Gather data and then use said data to formulate theories
38
What is inductive research?
Drawing conclusions about unobserved cases on the basis of observed cases
39
What is the process of deductive research?
1. Theory 2. Hypotheses 3. Data collection 4. Findings 5. Hypothesis supported/rejected 6. Substantiation/revision/rejection
40
What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?
Quantitative research seeks to quantify phenomena and establish generalizable patterns, whereas qualitative research aims to uncover nuanced insights and understand the complexities of human behaviour and social phenomena.
41
What are the differences in measurement between qualitative and quantitative research?
Quantitative is mostly deductive (numerical data/stats) Qualitative data is mostly inductive (interviews/observations)
42
What are the epistemological and ontological orientations of qualitative and quantitative research?
Quant: Positivism (E), Objectivism (O) Qual: Interpretivism (E), Constructionism (O)
43
What is a natural experiment?
Taking advantage of naturally occurring events to investigate the effects of an intervention
44
What are some characteristics of a natural experiment?
-No manipulation of variables -Lack of overall control -Pre-existing groups -Real-world influence -Value in situations where controlled experiments would be unethical
45
What is a field experiment?
A study of behaviour in natural settings
46
What are some characteristics of a field experiment?
-Direct intervention in a natural setting -Manipulation of variables -High external validity -Can be generalized to real-world contexts
47
What is a laboratory experiment?
A highly controlled experiment in a controlled environment
48
What are some characteristics of a laboratory experiment?
-Easy to randomly assign participants to different experimental conditions -Easier to induce nomothetic causation (IV on DV) -Low external validity -True experiment
49
What is characteristic of a true experiment?
-Deliberate manipulation of variables -Controls for extraneous variables -Systematic comparison of groups with different levels of subjection to variables
50
What is the classical experimental design?
-Experimental group -Control group -DV measured before and after IV introduction -Random assignment to ensure equality -OBServation of dependent variable->EXPerimental treatment (No exp means control group)->Timing of observations made in relation to dependent variable
51
What is a quasi-experiment?
An experiment that exhibits characteristics of the experimental model but lacks features that help researchers establish causation -If an experiment does not exhibit random assignment of groups, for example, it is a quasi-experiment
52
What are the limits of experimental design?
-Some variables of interest cannot be subjected to experimental manipulation -Ethics -Many phenomena cannot be measured by short-term experiments -Does not account for perception/emotion
53
Research ethics in quantitative research:
-Easier to obtain approval -Considered more scientific -Data gathered from individuals one at a time
54
Research ethics in qualitative research:
-Intrusive -May capture data on people who wish not to be observed -Lack of consent -Not concerned with reactivity -Indeterminate methods
55
What are the 3 core principles of research ethics?
Respect, Concern for welfare, Justice
56
What are the hallmarks of respect?
-Informed consent -Participants should be advised of risks and benefits
57
What are the hallmarks of concern for welfare?
-Avoid harm, embarrassment, inadvertent identification -Maintain confidentiality
58
What are the hallmarks of justice?
-No exploitation -Burden and benefit should be equally distributed -Inclusivity
59
What is the random response technique for sensitive topics?
-Everybody equipped with a coin -Heads answer yes, tails tell the truth -Based on coin outcome, respondents provide their response -Assumes 50% land on heads, so every % over 50 is multiplied by 2 to give the actual answer for what % is yes
60
What is covert research?
Investigations where people are being observed, but have not been informed that they are part of a study
61
What is wrong with covert research?
It violates the informed consent policy of respect for others
62
What is characteristic of a middle range theory?
-Limited in scope -Testable
63
What is characteristic of a grand theory?
-General/Abstract -Provide ways to look at the world
64
What is characteristic of grounded theory?
-Practice of deriving theories from qualitative data -Used by qualitative researchers -Inductive
65
What is validity?
Whether an indicator devised to gauge a concept does so accurately
66
What is face validity?
A measure appears to reflect the content of a concept in question
67
How can face validity be confirmed?
Ask experts in the field whether the measure reflects the concept concerned
68
What is construct validity?
Concepts used in research relate to one another in a way that is consistent with what their theories would predict.
69
What is convergent validity?
A concept measurement corresponds with a second measure of the same concept that used a different technique
70
What is predictive validity?
A measurement instrument can accurately predict outcomes/behaviours in a way that coincides theoretically with the observed construct
71
What is reliability?
Consistency of measures, stability over time
72
What is internal reliability?
Whether respondents' scores on one indicator relate to their scores on others ex: people who agree with right to vote also agree with free speech when measuring liberal democracy
73
What is inter-observer consistency?
Results consistent with results of others observing the same thing
74
What is validity?
Whether an instrument of measurement is accurately measuring the intended construct
75
What is the difference between reliability and validity?
Reliability is concerned with consistency, validity is concerned with accuracy
76
What is internal validity?
The extent to which an experiment accurately measures the effects of a variable
77
What is external validity?
How applicable an experiment is to the outside world
78
What does the cross-sectional research design look like?
Collecting data from a sample of individuals at one point in time to examine variables of interest
79
How is external validity of the cross sectional research design supported?
Random sampling
80
What is the longitudinal research design?
Cases examined at multiple points in time without manipulation of the IV
81
What is the benefit of the longitudinal design?
Examine a group of individuals over a long period of time
82
What is a panel study?
A type of longitudinal study where the same group of people is studied over time
83
What is a cohort study?
A type of longitudinal study where a group of people who share a common characteristic are studied over time.
84
What is the case study design?
Intensive and detailed analysis of one or several cases comparatively
85
What is coding?
Categorizing and labelling data to identify themes, patterns, and relationships
86
What is a coding schedule?
A table that visually represents code
86
What is a coding manual?
Instruction form for coders that includes all possible categories for each dimension to be coded
86
When do we code?
Predominantly when qualitative data is involved
86
What is a questionnaire?
A structured interview without the interviewer
86
What is the Likert scale?
Rate on a scale from 1-5 1 being x and 5 being y
87
What do the columns and rows of a coding schedule entail?
Columns: Dimension Rows: Cases
87
What are some rules for a questionnaire?
-Closed questions only -Questionnaire must be short -Must be easy to follow -Must be clear
88
What is an interview schedule?
The format that dictates the order of questions in an interview
89
What are some rules of an interview schedule?
-Sensitive questions should be placed well into the interview -The interviewer must know the schedule
90
Nomothetic explanations...
Apply to humanity in general, not just study participants
91
What are the requirements of a nomothetic explanation?
Correlation: Cause and effect must vary together Non-spuriousness: Alternative explanations must be ruled out Time order: Cause must precede effect
92
Idiographic explanations...
Produce a description of a person or group based on the feelings/perceptions of study participants
93
Some characteristics of idiographic explanations:
-Empathetic -Storytelling
94
Rules for writing research questions
o Keep the research question in mind o Focus on exactly what you want to know o Ask yourself the question o Avoid ambiguity o Be brief o No double barrel questions o No generalities o No leading questions o No negatives o No technical terms o Don’t overstretch participant memory
95
What is the reactive effect?
People change their behaviour when they know they’re being studied
96
What are the 2 main components of cross-sectional design?
Structured interviewing and structured observation
97
What is structured interviewing?
All respondents are asked exactly the same question with the help of a formal interview schedule
98
What are structured observations?
Researchers follow rules of when, where, how, and what they should look for and record observations
99
What are the strengths and weaknesses of open ended questions?
 Encourage respondents to share their thoughts/feelings (S)  Useful for in depth analysis (S)  Time consuming (W)  Limited standardization (W)
100
What are the strengths and weaknesses of closed ended questions?
 Collect structured data (S)  Limited insight (W)  Response bias (W)
101
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a questionnaire?
 Quick, cheap, easy (S)  Absence of interviewer effects (S)  Order effects (W)  Risk of missing info (W)  Can’t go into too much depth (W)
102
What are the strengths and weaknesses of a structured interview?
 Researchers present to explain questions (S)  No risk of missing data (S)  Can ask different kinds of questions (S)

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